國際太陽能聯盟：世界太陽能技術報告2023（英文版）（176頁）.pdf

《國際太陽能聯盟：世界太陽能技術報告2023（英文版）（176頁）.pdf》由會員分享，可在線閱讀，更多相關《國際太陽能聯盟：世界太陽能技術報告2023（英文版）（176頁）.pdf（176頁珍藏版）》請在三個皮匠報告上搜索。

1、WORLDSOLARTECHNOLOGYREPORT 2023Rapid advancement in renewable energy technologies is crucial for mitigating climate change,and solar offers sustainable alternatives with an unprecedented growth potential.The increasing solar deployment is emphasized by the rapid research and development of solar tec

2、hnologies in various aspects like module efficiency,which has shown a significant increase from 15%to 24%in the last decade,and power output with more than 600W available in the market;poised to reach 32%cell efficiency by 2033.The advancement in technology options caused an overall reduction in cos

3、t,material usage,and barriers to deployment.Technical and financial maturity,modularity,and scalability have made solar technologies viable.While PERC remains the proverbial working horse of the global PV industry,in 2022,new cell and module production capacities shifted from PERC to n-type-based tu

4、nneling oxide passivated contacts(TOPCon)and silicon heterojunction(SHJ)technologies.Several promising next-generation solar technologies such as perovskite-silicon tandem solar cells with power conversion efficiencies exceeding 30%are currently developing or approaching large-scale commercial manuf

5、acturing.These technologies offer significant benefits and potentially drive future capacity installations.Further research and development activities are required to ensure that they achieve their potential.Recent advancements in solar technologies include not only the developments in the solar mod

6、ule but also the innovations in the balance of systems such as inverters and trackers,plant design,construction activities operations,and maintenance,making solar deployment attractive for a wide range of consumers.The solar manufacturing supply chain continues to witness significant capacity growth

7、 and process improvements in material,technology,and energy efficiency.However,the geographically concentrated manufacturing supply chain needs to be diversified to ensure a laminar material supply.Furthermore,the annual growth of production needs to be pushed at least by 5%to attain the required pa

8、ce of production to move towards the net zero scenario.Integration to the grid infrastructure is a barrier to the high penetration of intermittent sources like solar,which is being addressed by coupling with suitable technologies such as battery energy storage systems,green hydrogen,etc.Similarly,co

9、mbining solar thermal technologies with other technologies opens new avenues in sectors like power generation and industry.Integrating concentrated solar power plants with coal power plants can support repurposing coal power plants.Moreover,advancements in solar thermal technology and diminishing co

10、st trends ForewordDr.Ajay MathurDirector GeneralInternational Solar AllianceWORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023enable them to be utilized to produce industrial process heat,which will significantly reduce greenhouse gas emissions from the industrial segment,the dominant emitter of greenhouse gases.Wh

11、ile solar energy has come a long way,there remains work to be done to explore the full potential of technology.Research and development activities must continue to drive technology innovation,while the global manufacturing supply chain must be more diversified and resilient.Through this flagship ann

12、ual World Solar Technology report,ISA aims to track solar technology developments and sectoral data trends,review the status of solar manufacturing worldwide,highlight gaps to be addressed,and shine a spotlight on the multiple benefits solar technologies can provide to different sectors.I congratula

13、te the ISA team and all the stakeholders involved for their work and support,and I look forward to sharing the ISA World Solar Technology Report 2023 with the global solar community.Table ofContents EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.081.APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY.152.ENERGY TRANSITION:SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES ARE AT THE FO

14、REFRONT.183.SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS.354.TECHNOLOGICAL SOLUTIONS AND INNOVATIONS TO INTEGRATE RISING SHARES OF SOLAR POWER GENERATION.1035.SOLAR MANUFACTURING:MOVING TOWARDS TERAWATT SCALE.1176.FOSTERING SOLAR TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT:ADDRESSING THE KEY GAP

15、S.1527.CONCLUSION.169 WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023AbbreviationsACAIAR6BESSBNEFBoMBoSBSFCAESCAISOCAPEXCGSCIGSCISCPVc-SiCSPCSSCTMCUFCVDCVDDCDWEIMEoLEPCeVEVEVAAlternating CurrentArtificial Intelligence Sixth Assessment ReportBattery Energy Storage SystemBloomberg New Energy FinanceBill of Materia

16、lsBalance of SystemBack Surface FieldCompressed Air Energy StorageCalifornia Independent System OperatorCapital ExpenditureCopper Gallium Diselenide Copper Indium Gallium SelenideCopper Indium DiselenideConcentrator PhotovoltaicsCrystalline SiliconConcentrated Solar PowerClose Space Sublimation Cell

17、 to ModuleCapacity Utilisation FactorChemical Vapor DepositionChemical Vapor Deposition Direct CurrentDiamond Wire Energy Imbalance MarketEnd of LifeEngineering Procurement andConstructionElectron VoltElectric VehicleEthyl Vinyl AcetateFBRGHGGWHJHVRTIBCIEAIPCCIPHIRENAISAITRPVkWhkWpLCOELIDLVRTMBBMPPM

18、tCO2MWMWTNDCNRELNZSOPEXPERCPHSPIDPVFluidized Bed ReactorGreenhouse Gas Giga WattHetero-JunctionHigh Voltage Ride-ThroughInterdigitated Back ContactInternational Energy AgencyIntergovernmental Panel on Climate ChangeIndustrial Process HeatInternational Renewable Energy AgencyInternational Solar Allie

19、nceInternational Technology Roadmap forPhotovoltaickilowatt hourkilowatt peakLevelized Cost of EnergyLight Induced DegradationLow Voltage Ride-ThroughMulti BusbarMaximum Power PointMillion Tons of Carbon DioxideMegawattMetal Wrap Through Nationally Determined ContributionsNational Renewable Energy L

20、aboratoryNet Zero ScenarioOperational ExpenditurePassivated Emitter Rear ContactPumped Hydro StoragePotential Induced DegradationPhotovoltaicKIUC KSEBLCALCOELIDMBBMEBMEDMEHMGSMSFM-SIPSMSPMTMWNDCNGONRELNTPCPECVDKauaI Island Utility CooperativeKerala State Electricity Board Life Cycle AssessmentLeveli

21、zed Cost of EnergyLight Induced Degradation Multi BusbarMultiple Effect Boiling Multiple Effect Distillation Multiple Effect Humidification Metallurgical Grade Silicon Multi Stage Flash Distillation Modified Special Incentive Package SchemeMinimum Sustainable PriceMetric TonMegawattNationally Determ

22、ined ContributionsNon-Governmental OrganisationNational Renewable Energy LaboratoryNational Thermal Power CorporationPlasma Enhanced Chemical VaporDeposition PEMPERCPERLPERTPETPIDPLIPM-KUSUMPOEPSGPVPolymer Electrolyte MembranePassivated Emitter and Rear CellPassivated Emitter with Rear Locally Diffu

23、sedPassivated Emitter,Rear Totally Diffused Polyester Potential Induced Degradation Production Linked IncentivePradhan Mantri Kisan Urja Suraksha evamUtthan MahabhiyanPolyolefin ElastomersPhosphosilicate GlassPhotovoltaicPVDFPVFPVPSRCRARERORTCSCADASHJSMESSOECSRVSSEFSWCTTCOTCSTOPConPolyvinylidene Flu

24、oride Polyvinyl Fluoride Photovoltaic Power Systems ProgrammeResource Conservation and Recovery Act Renewable EnergyReverse Osmosis Round The ClockSupervisory Control and Data Acquisition Silicon HeterojunctionSuperconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Solid Oxide ElectrolysersSurface Recombinant Veloc

25、ity Shakti Sustainable Energy FoundationSmart Wire Connection Technology Transparent Conducting OxidesTrichlorosilane Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact TRTWUAEUHVUKUMGUNESCAPTiling Ribbon TerawattUnited Arab Emirates Ultra High Voltage United KingdomUpgraded Metallurgical Silicon United Nations Econom

26、ic and SocialCommission for Asia and the PacificUSAVIPVVPPVREWBWEEEUnited States of AmericaVehicle Integrated PV Virtual Power Plants Variable Renewable Energy World BankWaste Electrical and ElectronicEquipment RESMESSWCTTCSToDTOPConTRTWTWhUAEUHVUMG-SiUSAVPPRenewable EnergySuperconducting Magnetic E

27、nergy StorageSmart Wire Connection Technology Trichloro Silane Time of Day Tunnel Oxide Passivated ContactTiling Ribbon TerrawattTerrawatt hourUnited Arab EmiratesUltra-High VoltageUpgraded Metallurgical Grade Silicon United States of AmericaVirtual Power PlantsWORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023 EXE

28、CUTIVE SUMMARY1234567ExecutiveSummaryThe world has embarked on a significant transition by moving towards cleaner sources of energy.According to the 2022 Global Climate Stocktake report by the UN,the average global otemperature is expected to reach or exceed 1.5 C of warming oover the next 20 years.

29、The report has also attributed over 1 C of warming to greenhouse gas emissions from human activities since the late 19th century.The effects of climate change are becoming increasingly apparent,with heat waves,cold snaps,forest fires,floods,and other such national disasters becoming increasingly com

30、mon.The industrial sector consumes the biggest chunk of energy accounting for 36%of the total energy consumption followed by the building(33%)and transportation(31%)sectors.The key emitting sub-sectors include power,road transportation,residential building,steel industries etc.while the major chunk

31、of electricity generated in the power sector is being utilized by the industrial sector.The CO emissions have increased in 2022 by 45%over 2the last 20 years and the total GHG emissions in 2022 were recorded as 39.3 billion tonnes (BTCO e)2of carbon dioxide(CO)equivalent out of which 34.6 2BtCO e(88

32、%)was contributed by carbon dioxide 2which is the primary greenhouse gas.There are several pathways to achieve greenhouse gas abatements required to limit climate change,but all require significant deployment of renewable energy sources.While multiple renewable energy technologies are available,the

33、last decade has seen solar energy emerge as the leading RE technology,with cumulative installations growing sixfold to reach 1100 GW in 2023.This rapid growth is set to continue for years to come,fueled by technical and financial maturity as well as scalability.The future of solar also looks bright

34、due to its potential to enable or link with other technologies to abate sectors that pose complex decarbonization challenges,such as transport,building,agriculture,and manufacturing,among others.9WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023Solar technologies encompass a broad and ever-growing array of options

35、 and are primarily divided into two major groups.Solar photovoltaic(PV)technologies convert light into usable electricity,while Solar Thermal technologies convert light into usable thermal energy.Solar PV technologies have emerged as the dominant technology,while solar thermal remains relevant for c

36、ertain specific applications.The solar PV technology family is dominated by crystalline silicon technologies,which have seen significant research and development(R&D)investments leading to average module efficiencies increasing from around 15%in 2010 to around 23%in 2023.Additionally,average module

37、power ratings have gone from under 250 W in 2010 to around 440 W by 2022,with 700 W commercial modules now available in the market.A rapid technology development cycle and significant R&D expenditure promise further innovations that will drive future improvements.Over the last 15 years,solar PV pric

38、es have seen a dramatic fall from around 5 USD per watt in 2009 to under 0.24 USD per watt in 2022.The same period has seen cumulative capacity grow by two orders of magnitude.Non-silicon-based technologies are promising but are unlikely to replace crystalline silicon technologies and will likely re

39、main more relevant for niche applications such as space-based deployment.The Balance of System(BoS)components,including inverters,mounting and racking systems,and trackers,have seen their own cost and technology improvements to help lower the solar lifetime cost of electricity(LCOE).Solar benefits e

40、xtend to the wider system in which the technology is deployed.Solar PV systems utilize far fewer materials than equivalent capacities of wind power and are unique such that glass makes up a significant portion of their material usage by weight.The land usage(3-10 acres per MW)and lifetime GHG emissi

41、ons(under 50-60 gCO2e/kWh)remain low as well.Solar PV systems fall under three main categories:Residential,Commercial and EXECUTIVE SUMMARY123456710A rapid technology development cycle and significant R&D expenditure promise further innovations that will drive future improvements.Over the last 15 ye

42、ars,solar PV prices has seen a dramatic fall from around 5 USD per watt in 2008 to under 0.3 USD per watt in 2021.The same period has seen cumulative capacity grow by two orders of magnitudes.Non-silicon based technologies are promising but are unlikely to replace crystalline silicon technologies an

43、d will likely remain more relevant for niche applications such as space based deployment.The Balance of System(BoS)components,including inverters,mounting and racking systems,and trackers,have seen their own cost and technology improvements to help lower the solar lifetime cost of electricity(LCOE).

44、Solar benefits extend to the wider system in which the technology is deployed.Solar PV systems utilise far less materials than equivalent capacities of wind power and are unique such that glass makes up a significant portion of their material usage by weight.The land usage(1.2-4.1 hectares per MW)an

45、d lifetime GHG emissions(under 50-60 gCO2e/kWh)remains low as well.Solar PV systems fall under three main categories:Residential,Commercial and Industrial(C&I),each with their own technical and financial considerations to help maximise generation and minimise cost.The design,construction,and operati

46、ons and maintenance(O&M)activities of a solar PV system also play a role in maximising generation and minimising deployment cost.Despite seeing widespread global deployment,solar remains a source of untapped opportunities.The coupling of solar energy with other technologies can help address sector s

47、pecific needs.Solar may be-11Concentrated solar supply chains dominated As per an average of various expert predictions,cumulative solar deployment is expected to reach nearly 5 terawatt20301 terawatt by,having crossed in April 2022.The likelihood of this target being achieved is inextricably linked

48、 with the strength of the manufacturing supply chain.This supply chain involves not just the components of,but also includes the BoS solar modulescomponents that comprise a complete PV system.The crystalline silicon PV supply chain is by far the largest worldwide,consisting of four key stages:polysi

49、licon,ingots/wafers,cells,and modules.Manufacturing capacity across these stages is geographically concentrated in China,with at least 75%of manufacturing capacity at each stage located in the country.In contrast,the manufacturing of BoS components is disaggregated.Industrial),each with its own tech

50、nical and financial considerations that help maximize generation and minimize cost.The design,construction,and operations and maintenance(O&M)activities of a solar PV system also play a role in maximizing generation and minimizing deployment costs.Despite seeing widespread global deployment,solar re

51、mains a source of untapped opportunities.The coupling of solar energy with other technologies can help address sector-specific needs.Solar may be-Deployed with energy storage to improve the flexibility of generationGenerate green hydrogen for industrial decarbonizationDeployed on agricultural land t

52、o improve land use efficiencyPower heating and coolingCharge electric vehicles to help decarbonize transportationIntegrated into buildings or vehicles for electricity generationDeployed on water bodies to minimize land usage These innovative applications and sectoral linkages are already seeing trac

53、tion and are expected to be a key source of solar energy growth.WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023The supply of polysilicon has been constrained after a long period of supply glut despite over 950,000 MT of manufacturing capacity worldwide.These undersupply situations have in turn seen prices increa

54、se multi-fold,affecting the supply chain.While China has a significant share of polysilicon manufacturing,it has a near monopoly for the next stage,ingot/wafer production,with around 96%of the 400+GW global manufacturing capacity located there.However,this geographic concentration of manufacturing i

55、s dispersed slightly for the downstream stages of cell and module manufacturing.Solar cells are the heart of a PV system,and production varies significantly based on the specific cell architecture used.Around 470 GW of cell manufacturing capacity is present worldwide.Module manufacturing,by contrast

56、,is a relatively low-skilled process,and is present in several countries,resulting in over 600 GW of module manufacturing capacity.Across all the supply chain stages,constant innovations and process improvements have led to increased material efficiency,lower costs,and improved module performance.Th

57、in film PV manufacturing capacity is significantly smaller than crystalline silicon PV and growth has been stagnant in most countries.However,it is being explored as an opportunity by some countries to minimize external dependencies while meeting solar demand.The solar manufacturing supply chain mus

58、t address a few key concerns in the coming years.The geographic concentration of manufacturing capacity leaves the supply chain open to shocks.Additionally,current manufacturing capacity is much larger compared to demand for all stages except polysilicon and is expected to grow further in coming yea

59、rs.This oversizing is due to large-scale capacity expansion in China.However,other regions face a huge manufacturing capacity deficit and thus are heavily reliant on imports.The sustainability of manufacturing operations also needs to be addressed,with energy-hungry processes being fueled primarily

60、by coal-fired electricity generation in China.Solar recycling,currently a nascent field,will also become increasingly important as deployed modules reach the end of their lifecycle in the coming decades.As solar generation is set to increase with the acceleration of global capacity deployment,it is

61、important to consider the impact of Variable Renewable Energy(VRE)sources on the electrical grid of a region.High penetration of VRE often leads to grid instability due to loss of power flexibility,frequency mismatch,nonsynchronous generation etc.Thus,integrating sufficiently high shares of solar in

62、 the electricity mix can run the risk of causing blackouts and damaging electrical equipment.To avoid this outcome,some grids have turned to curtailment,which is essentially a waste of potential generation,and an undesirable outcome.12 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY1234567To address the challenges posed by solar

63、 generation and support grid integration,a variety of tools are available.These include both demand-side and supply-side initiatives and can involve the usage of energy storage,demand-side management,energy markets,grid interconnections,flexible generation assets,and grid digitalization activities.I

64、t is important to note that there is no one size fits all solution-Instead,it is important to utilize the appropriate solution to tackle a specific grid integration challenge effectively.A number of countries,such as Germany,USA,China,India,and Japan,are at various stages of deployment of these solu

65、tions for grid integration.Solar PV has the potential to be a key technology for the energy transition,but barriers and gaps remain to be addressed across the ecosystem.These include:Improvement of supply chain resilience through a diversified and vertically integrated manufacturingAppropriate dispo

66、sal and/or recycling of solar waste,including through minimization of toxic components and clear policy initiativesImproved project development through design optimization,skill development,and market support for advanced technologiesStandardization of quality across manufacturing locations and comp

67、anies,with frequent updating of benchmarks and improved testing infrastructureOptimization of module bill of materials and greening of supply chains to minimize industry footprint This will help pave the way for terawatt scale installations and unlock significant socio-economic benefits.The sector c

68、an generate significant employment,with 1 GW of vertically integrated manufacturing capacity creating anywhere from 1000-2000 direct manufacturing jobs.Distributed generation through solar devices can improve energy access for remote communities,and benefit users in impoverished areas.Additionally,t

69、he environmental benefits of solar are clear,with a 100 MW solar plant estimated to avoid the emission of 139,000 MT of CO,90 MT of NOx,80 MT of SOx,and 6 MT 2of PM2.5 particles each year.Solar has the potential to provide far more than energy.13WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202314This report is div

70、ided into seven sections.The first section outlines the approach and methodology used to prepare the report.The second section introduces the energy transition and the central role that renewable energy,specifically solar energy,can play a key role to help drive the transition.The third section disc

71、usses the wide array of solar technologies available such as solar PV and solar thermal technologies,as well as the additional components that make up a solar energy system.This section also highlights solar energys flexibility to address clean energy demands in multiple sectors,and the significant

72、potential for sectoral linkages that arise from this flexibility.The fourth section provides an overview of the solar manufacturing supply chain,including the manufacturing of additional components.This section also underlines the need for solar recycling.The fifth section showcases the various dema

73、nd and supply side measures available to assist with grid integration of rising shares of solar generation.The sixth section highlights the key gaps and considerations across the solar technology ecosystem and provides recommendations to help address the same.The seventh and final section concludes

74、the report.The ISA World Solar Technology Report is an annual publication that aims to track solar technology developments and data trends year on year.Subsequent reports will build on the work done in previous editions to provide a clear overview of the global solar technology ecosystem.EXECUTIVE S

75、UMMARY123456715 1 APPROACH&METHODOLOGY23456 7 Approach&Methodology16ApproachThe solar technology ecosystem is diverse,with a wide variety of components,technologies,manufacturing stages,applications,and enabling technologies involved.Additionally,the technology development cycle is rapid,with the in

76、dustry shifting radically in the space of a few years to adopt new technologies and processes.Thus,while preparing a comprehensive overview of the global solar technology ecosystem,it is important to have a clear approach and methodology in place to ensure that all key topics are covered in requisit

77、e detail and that the data and insights represented are accurate.While the solar sector has seen significant growth over the past decade,there remain areas to be addressed to ensure that the technology achieves its potential.In its efforts to ensure large-scale solar adoption globally,ISA has undert

78、aken the development of the World Solar Technology Report to provide a sustainable knowledge base for policymakers,manufacturers,developers,and other key sectoral stakeholders to monitor the current situation of solar technologies and have greater clarity on future trends.ISA aims to ensure the util

79、ization of the report for the dissemination of knowledge on the solar technological situation,including the main trends in PV modules and designs,the various applications and sectoral linkages,the manufacturing supply chain,grid integration technologies,and circularity and sustainability considerati

80、ons.An overall architecture approach,consisting of 4 broader steps,viz.review,collect,analyze,and report,has been adopted to prepare the report.The steps adopted under the approach were mainly focused on 2 broad aspects,namely secondary research and data analysis.The approach was aimed at ensuring t

81、hat key solar technology and manufacturing indicators are covered under the report.WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023MethodologyFor the development of the report,a detailed methodology was prepared under the adopted approach.It was focused on gathering relevant data points and presenting it in order

82、 to derive key insights on the solar technology ecosystem around the world.The primary activity undertaken involved reviewing the present scenarios as well as gathering relevant data on technologies in the solar energy sector.Secondary research was conducted to understand the key developments around

83、 the solar sector,with a focus on solar technologies,manufacturing,and grid integration.Additionally,a review of existing reports on similar topics,with global and regional scopes,was carried out.A review of the solar manufacturing ecosystem,grid integration challenges and solutions,and system level

84、 considerations was conducted.Relevant case studies were also identified and shortlisted,with key case studies developed with information captured during the secondary research.To carry out the secondary research activities,a range of reputed databases and reports were reviewed and scrutinized;these

85、 include ISA,BloombergNEF(BNEF),IRENA,IEA,and NREL,among others.Thus,through secondary research,activities on review of information and collection of data were completed.After data collection,data analysis was carried out to identify the key trends in terms of improvements in solar technologies,incl

86、uding efficiency improvements,cost and material usage reductions,and power output increases.Improvements at the system level,including design,construction,and operations and maintenance were also covered.The geographical distribution of the manufacturing supply chain,manufacturing process trends,as

87、well as key players in the sector,were identified.These analyses extended to balance of system components such as inverters,racking systems,and solar trackers.The projected requirements for recycling and circularity were also analyzed.The varied sector linkages made possible by solar technologies we

88、re showcased through case studies.Additionally,the gaps across the ecosystem were highlighted,with recommendations for possible solutions.17 1 APPROACH&METHODOLOGY23456 7 The World Solar Investment Report8 2 ENERGY TRANSITION:SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES IN THE FOREFRONT 34567EnergyTransition:SolarTechnologie

89、s areat the forefront In achieving the net-zero GHG emission scenario thereby mitigating the impact of climate change,energy transition and decarbonization is imperative.The recent abnormal weather patterns across the world substantiate the threat of climate change and a need to shift to renewable e

90、nergy resources which would play a key role in the abatement of GHG emissions.19WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023Source:Our World in Data and Climate Watch01020304050602000Aviation and shippingOther fuel combustionFugitive emissionsBuildingsElectricity and heatTransportManufacturing and constructio

91、nIndustryWasteLand-use change and forestryAgricultureTotal2001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019Worldwide Greenhouse Gas Emissions by Sector(Billion Tonnes CO Equivalent)2Reducing greenhouse gas(GHG)is emissionscrucial to combat climate change and its adverse im

92、pacts.The total GHG emissions in 2020 were recorded as tonnes of carbon dioxide 39.3 billion1(CO)equivalent (BTCO2e)out of which 234.6 BtCO e(88%)22 contributed by CO,the primary 2greenhouse gas.20The other greenhouse gases include methane,nitrous oxide,fluorinated gases etc.Global warming,the pheno

93、menon of increasing the average surface temperature of the earth,is expected to continue until 2040 mainly due to 3the increased cumulative emissions of CO.2Being the primary greenhouse gas,energy utilized by the end-use sectors such as industry,buildings,and transportation have a footprint of CO ei

94、ther directly and/or indirectly.For instance,2industries emit CO and other GHGs directly as a 2part of different industrial processes whereas the electricity consumed from the grid,which has been generated from power plants with feedstock such as coal,oil and/or gas,is also responsible for the indir

95、ect CO emissions.The 2share of the end-use sector in CO emission is 2given in Figure 1.1 Our World in Data-emissions?breakBy=sector&chartType=area&end_year=2020§ors=bunker-fuels&start_year=20002 BNEF-New energy outlook 2022.3 IPCC-Sixth assessment report(Ar6)As an end user,industry(40%)accounts

96、for the major share of emissions of CO followed by the 2buildings(31%)and transportation segment.Progressing on,the end-user segments are elaborated into various sub-sectors to get better visibility on CO emissions.The sub-sectors 2accounting for emissions and their respective emissions are highligh

97、ted in Figure 2.Figure 1:CO Emissions by End-use Sector2(Shares)Source:BNEF-New Energy Outlook 2022Industry40%Transport27%31%2%BuildingsOtherCO2Emissionsby End-useSector(Shares)2 ENERGY TRANSITION:SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES IN THE FOREFRONT 34567Notably,the indirect CO emissions of the end-2users,industrial

98、,transportation and building segments,majorly associated with the electricity consumed,are categorized under the CO 2emissions of the power sector,where it would be direct emissions.Therefore,the emissions under the power segment comprised of CO emissions 2associated with the production of electrici

99、ty and heat which might be used in industry,transportation,and buildings as an end-user.While the CO emitted by different processes in 2the industry sector is expressed as a combination of various individual emission-intensive industries like steel,aluminium etc.Similarly,the direct CO emissions in

100、the 2transport and buildings segments are also plotted in the Figure.Considering the data for the last two decades,because of the increasing industrial and non-industrial activities,CO emissions have seen an 2average yearly increase of 1.9%to hit 34.6 BtCO2 by 2022,an increase of 49.7%compared to th

101、e emissions in 2000.In 2020,amid the Covid-19 pandemic,CO2 emissions witnessed a slight dip,however,it inched up in successive years.Based on the assumptions of BNEF as mentioned above,in 2022,the major share of CO emission primarily accounts for the power 2sector(41.1%)followed by transportation(23

102、.7%)and industrial processes(19.6%).Note that,major chunks of electricity generated in the power sector are further utilized in the industry segment,consequently,it becomes responsible for the highest CO emissions as an end-user as 2demonstrated in Figure 1.While in the transportation sector,road tr

103、ansport retains the highest share of CO emissions for the last two 2decades,accountable for 78.0%of the emissions from the transport sector alone and 18.5%of total emissions in the year 2022.Similarly,steel industries release 40.3%of the total CO emitted 2from the industrial sector because of variou

104、s industrial processes,responsible for 7.9%of the total Co emissions.2The final energy consumption of different end-user is also estimated and illustrated in Figure 3.21Figure 2:Worldwide Green-House Gas Emissions by Sector(Billion Tons CO Equivalent)2Source:BNEF-New Energy Outlook 2022Worldwide Gre

105、en-House Gas Emissions by Sector(Billion Tons CO Equivalent)2Energy IndustryOther SectorsHydrogenPowerRailAviationShippingRoadCom BuildingsRes BuildingsOther IndustryPetrochemicalsCementAluminumSteelTotal403530252015105020002001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019

106、202020212022IndustryBuildingTransportPower&EnergyHydrogenOtherWORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023The electricity,being the second largest form of final energy source succeeding that behind oil,attract attention.The various sources of electricity and patten of generation is plotted in Figure 4.22As pe

107、r the Figure,the energy demand in three major segments is slightly dominated by the industrialsegment.In the industrial segment,the major(36%)share of energy demand is met by and coal(34%)electricity.While in the buildings sector,the(26%)second largest energy consuming sector,the major share of ener

108、gy requirement is satisfied by electricity(33%)gas(25%)bioenergy(23%)followed by and whereas in the transportation sector,95%of energy demand is met by oil.2 ENERGY TRANSITION:SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES IN THE FOREFRONT 34567Figure 3:World Total Energy ConsumptionSource:BNEF-New Energy Outlook 2022Transport

109、ationBuildingsIndustry95%23%33%25%9%3%5%2%115,699 PJ31%123,983 PJ33%34%20%9%7%4%26%137,235 PJ36%Coal Gas Oil Bioenergy Renewables Heat Electricity HydrogenFinal Energy Consumption by Subsector and Fuel23Figure 4:Electricity Generation by Technologies(Twh)Source:BNEF-New Energy Outlook 2022 -5,00010,

110、00015,00020,00025,00030,000OtherWindSolarGeothermalHydroBioenergyNuclearHydrogenOilGasCoal2001200220032004200520062007200820092010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020212022Electricity Generation by Technologies(TWh)WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202324Figure depicts the gradual increase of elec

111、tricity consumption over the last twenty years reaching 28,403 TWh in 2022,a 93%increase of consumption in comparison with that of 2000.Though,in 2022,major share of electricity is generated(38%)from coal,a fuel which accountable for the 48%of the total CO 2emission.Therefore,as a deduction,reductio

112、n of consumption of coal to generate electricity and oil for the transportation is necessary to reduce the overall Co emission thereby decreasing 2concentration of GHGs in the atmosphere.Greening electricity through faster adoption of renewables can abate GHG emissions significantly-have been detail

113、ed in the sixth assessment report(AR6)of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change th(IPCC)published on 20 March 2023 has detailed the Devastating consequences of GHG emissions around the world,resulting in the destruction of homes,loss of livelihoods and fragmentation of the communities.One of

114、the key findings of the report is that the earths climate is experiencing unprecedented changes in recent human history due to human-induced global warming,with a rise of global surface otemperature by 1.1 C.Furthermore,the global temperature is on an upward trajectory,with the oglobal temperature r

115、ising more than 1.5 C during stthe 21 century,making it harder to limit it below o2 C under high-emission pathways.Such high global temperature rise is expected to have severe and widespread consequences on humankind,and flora and fauna.The resilient adaptation measures are also described in the AR6

116、 synthesis report with aligned pathways to reduce GHG emissions.The report describes modelled pathways to achieve the goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 oC,and to reduce GHG emissions to 33.7 giga tonnes CO equivalent(GtCO e)by 2030 and 18.3 22GtCO e by 2040 compared to the 59.1 GtCO e 22emissio

117、ns in 2019.To limit global warming to the set goal,the world must shift from fossil fuels,the key sources of GHG emission and climate crisis,to renewable energy resources.Additionally,a clear strategy has to be formulated and implemented to secure net-zero emissions at the earliest.2 ENERGY TRANSITI

118、ON:SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES IN THE FOREFRONT 345672.1 Renewable Energy Addition;Keep an Upward TrajectoryThe transition from fossil fuels to renewable energy is essential to achieve the net-zero emissions scenario,particularly in the electricity sector which accounts for the second largest energy consumed

119、 but contributes the highest GHG emissions.The total global electricity requirement and the share of renewable energy generation are represented in Figure 5.25Source:BNEF-New Energy Outlook 2022Figure 5:Annual World Electricity Generation and RE Generation05000100001500020000250003000020102011201220

120、13201420152016201720182019202020212022Annual Electricity Generation(TWh)Annual RE generation(TWh)Annual World RE Generation(TWh)WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202326Both electricity and RE generation have seen steady growth over the last decade.Nevertheless,RE contributes 12.6%of the total energy req

121、uirements as of 2022,up from 3%in 2010.This upward trajectory is set to continue for years to come.Several renewable energy sources are being deployed at scale,including hydropower,wind,solar,and biofuels as depicted in Figure 6.Hydropower has been the dominant fraction of RE for several decades,whi

122、le wind power has also contributed a significant part including both off-shore and on-shore projects.Remarkably,in recent years,solar power especially solar photovoltaic(PV)power has seen a steady growth in the past decade,leap-frogging biofuels and wind and becoming the second largest renewable ene

123、rgy source after hydropower.A detailed analysis is summarized in Table 1.2 ENERGY TRANSITION:SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES IN THE FOREFRONT 34567Figure 6:Global Renewable Energy DeploymentSource:IRENA Renewable Energy Statistics 2023 20132013201320132013201320132013201320134000350030025002000150010005000Annual

124、 Global RE Capacity(GW)Solar Photovltaic Hydropower Geothermal,Biomass and OtherWindConcentrated Solar Power 27Figure 6:Global Renewable Energy DeploymentSolarPhotovoltaicsConcentratedSolar PowerWindHydropowerBiofuelsAbsolutegrowth over theLast Decade667%46%22%Absolute growthover the last2 yearsGrow

125、th overlast year67%1%4%200%23%9%22%4%2%79%12%6%Solar has grown over six-fold in the past decade and climbed to 1055 GW of installed capacity in 2022.Wind power attained a two-fold growth over the last decade and hydropower has grown by 22%.With an annual growth rate of 25%for solar power,compared to

126、 13%for wind and 6.7%for biofuels,it is not difficult to imagine that solar will eventually become the largest renewable energy source in terms of installed capacity worldwide.Figure 7:Share of Global Capacity Additions by TechnologySource:BNEF-New Energy Outlook 2022As illustrated in Figure 7,the g

127、lobal capacity additions by technology highlight the dominance of solar power(44%)among the RE resources followed by wind(24%)in 2022.Although hydropower contributes the largest share of RE electricity,solar has shown remarkable growth to hit a 15.5%share of the RE power as of 2022,up from 1%in 2010

128、,as depicted in Figure 8.0%20%40%60%80%100%2022202120202019201820172016201520142013Share of Global Capacity Additions by TechnologySolarNatural GasWindCoalHydroOilBioenergyNuclearOtherWORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202328Figure 8:Annual Source-wise RE Power Generation ShareSource:Energy Institute Sta

129、tistical Review of World Energy-20230%10%20%30%40%50%60%70%80%90%100%2010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020212022Solar EnergyHydro EnergyGeothermal,Biomass and OtherWind EnergyAnnual Source Wise RE Power Generation Share(%)2 ENERGY TRANSITION:SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES IN THE FOREFRONT 3456729Solar

130、has grown over six-fold in the past decade and climbed to 1055 GW of installed capacity in 2022.Wind power attained a two-fold growth over the last decade and hydropower has grown by 22%.With an annual growth rate of 25%for solar power,compared to 13%for wind and 6.7%for biofuels,it is not difficult

131、 to imagine that solar will eventually become the largest renewable energy source in terms of installed capacity worldwide.Years of research and developments in the field have led solar energy systems to achieve a robust technological foundation as an energy-generating system.Though solar PV dominat

132、es as a technology,solar thermal technology has also been developed and installed significantly.Solar PV has seen the development of multiple technologies that have increased the efficiency and reliability of solar modules.Fast-paced growth in technological advancementsImprovement in technologies re

133、sulted in a steady decrease in the levelized cost of energy(LCOE)for solar resulting in financial benefits for the private sector.Furthermore,the declining cost of solar PV equipment such as solar panels,inverters and other components has made solar energy increasingly cost-competitive with traditio

134、nal fossil fuel-based power generation methods.Additionally,the development of a strong supply chain for solar PV components has further helped drive down equipment costs while ensuring high quality and durability to increase the solar plants operational lifespans.Commercial viability and grid parit

135、yThe modularity and flexibility of solar lends itself to ease of deployment,which in turn has led to increased generation.The extensive deployment of solar systems worldwide has provided valuable data and operational experience,leading to a better understanding and optimization of solar power system

136、s.The large portfolio of options,solutions,and applications offered by solar allows it to address all sectors,with systems ranging from the kW size to the GW size.Ease of deployment including modularity to meet various applicationsGrid IntegrationThe successful integration of solar power into the el

137、ectricity grid through advanced grid management techniques and smart grid technologies has enhanced its reliability and stability.Additionally,ongoing research and innovation in the field of storage have led to substantial integration of solar energy systems into the grid ensuring a stable operation

138、.WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023302.2 Renewable Energy;Quintessential on Energy Transition PathwaysImmediate and systemwide transformation strategy and pathways to reduce GHG emissions and secure net zero is an absolute necessity.However,there is no single approach or technology that can claim to

139、 cover all aspects required for a successful transition.There are multiple opportunities for scaling up technologies which are assessed and found to be feasible and able to contribute to net emissions reduction.Some of the potential mitigation options related to the energy sector are:Renewable energ

140、y and energygeneration diversificationEnergy efficiency and conservationDemand-side management(higherefficiency appliances and peak shiftingusing storage)Substantial reduction in overall fossilfuel use,methane emission reductions Retirement and/or repurposing of coalpower plants to Concentrating Sol

141、arPower(CSP).Biofuels/Bio EnergyUsing Green Hydrogen andderivatives as fuel as well as storageElectric transportation poweredby low-GHG emissions electricity 2 ENERGY TRANSITION:SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES IN THE FOREFRONT 34567According to the AR6 synthesis report,the electricity sector will be the second l

142、argest source of GHG emissions in 2050 with the highest potential of reduction of emissions(73%)among the sectors-food,transport,buildings and industry.Rapid integration of renewable energy resources in the electricity sector is essential to achieve the required emissions abatement where solar energ

143、y will provide the largest share as depicted in Figure 9.Figure 9:Solar PV installation Scenario in 2050Source:ISA Analysis31Based on the reports and findings of different organizations,renewable energy resources,especially solar are at the center stage of the energy transition in achieving net-zero

144、 GHG emissions by 2050.Quoting the studies on the topic,a minimum capacity deployment of 15500 GW of solar and at least 85%renewable energy share is necessary to achieve the net-zero GHG emission target.700006000050000400003000020000100000100%90%80%70%60%50%40%30%20%10%0%IRENA-1.5 CIEA-Net ZeroBNEF-

145、NewEnergy OutlookITRPV-BoardElectrificationScenarioScenarios for Total Installed Capacity of Solar PV in 2050(GW)Installed Capacity(GW)Share of RE Genration(%)91%88%85%100%700006000050000400003000020000100000100%80%60%40%20%0%IRENA-1.5 CIEA-Net ZeroBNEF-NewEnergy OutlookITRPV-BoardElectrificationSce

146、narioMixedScenarioScenarios for Total Installed Capacity of Solar PV in 2050(GW)Installed Capacity(GW)Share of RE Genration(%)91%88%85%100%91%WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023322.3 Solar Energy:Accelerating the path towards net zero While solar energys strong historical growth has been driven by a

147、combination of technological and financial considerations highlighted above,the future of solar remains bright due to the technologys modularity and capability for usage in different applications.The global emissions are expected to fall from 2024 and reach net zero in 2050,according to the Net Zero

148、 Scenario(NZS)of BNEF,aligned to the target of the Paris Agreement to keep the temperature below o2 C above the pre-industrial level.The expected RE installations to be achieved is illustrated in Figure 10.Evidently,solar projected to be at the center stage by 2030 with an installed capacity of 5345

149、 GW,contributing 51.0%of the total RE share.Furthermore,solar share is also expected to reach an installed capacity of 16887 GW in 2050,56.5%of the total RE capacity.Solar is uniquely placed due to its potential to directly generate clean energy as well as in combination with other technologies to a

150、bate sectors that pose complex decarbonization challenges.These linkages mean that solar energy has the potential to help decarbonize not just the power and heat sector,but also tackle decarbonization challenges in transportation,agriculture,manufacturing,and buildings,among other sectors.The use of

151、 solar energy ties in well with the electrification of end uses of energy,a trend that is already underway in certain sectors and will continue to grow.Some of the areas where Solar energy can be utilized,apart from direct electrification are:Figure 10:Projected RE Installation in NZS(GW)Source:BNEF

152、-New Energy Outlook 2022 2 ENERGY TRANSITION:SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES IN THE FOREFRONT 34567Projected RE Installation in NZS(GW)0500010000150002000025000300002023203020402050HydroWindSolar PVBioenergy33Solar is uniquely placed due to its potential to directly generate clean energy as well as in combinatio

153、n with other technologies to abate sectors that pose complex decarbonization challenges.These linkages mean that solar energy has the potential to help decarbonize not just the power and heat sector,but also tackle decarbonization challenges in transportation,agriculture,manufacturing,and buildings,

154、among other sectors.The use of solar energy ties in well with the electrification of end uses of energy,a trend that is already underway in certain sectors and will continue to grow.Some of the areas where Solar energy can be utilized,apart from direct electrification are:Evidently,solar projected t

155、o be at the center stage by 2030 with an of,installed capacity5345 GWcontributing 51.0%of the total RE share.Furthermore,solar share is also expected to reach an installed capacity of in 2050,of 16887 GW56.5%the total.RE capacityUtilization of solar energy integrated with energy storage systems,such

156、 as batteries,ensures the energy supply round-the-clock.The battery energy storage systems can also support the utilities to improve the stability and reliability of the grid with a high penetration of solar energy systems.Energy storage systemsThe use of building integrated PV to develop solar faca

157、des and other architectural solutions can help to improve building energy efficiency while also generating clean energy for self-consumption.Building integrated photovoltaicsSolar power has a significant potential in the charging of electric vehicles which is set to be vital for the decarbonization

158、in the transportation sector.Electric VehicleSolar energy can power electrolysis to produce green hydrogen,a clean fuel with various industrial and transportation applications which can reduce the GHG emission tremendously.Green hydrogenIntegrating solar thermal collectors with water heating systems

159、 can reduce the energy consumption associated with heating water for domestic and commercial purposes.Solar water heating systemSolar energy can be combined with other renewable energy resources or even with fossil fuel plants like to reduce carbon footprints.This approach takes advantage of the com

160、plementary nature of resources,ensuring an uninterrupted power supply across different weather conditions.Hybrid and round-the-clock renewable energy systemsWORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023Solar PV is a versatile technology that can be deployed from Watts to GW scale depending upon the application

161、.Solar can also be deployed in remote regions with no or limited grid connectivity,providing clean energy in regions that would otherwise continue to rely on traditional non-renewable sources.The versatility,mature ecosystem,and sector coupling opportunities associated with solar energy underline it

162、s credentials as the go-to technology for the energy transition.Various details concerning the evolution of solar energy technologies,manufacturing processes and utilization of solar energy for various purposes,advancement in recent years and the future of technologies shall be discussed in the late

163、r chapters.34 2 ENERGY TRANSITION:SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES IN THE FOREFRONT 34567The World Solar Investment Report8 3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 4567Solar Technologies:Cross-cuttingapplications acrossmultiple sectors The radiation from the Sun the primary energy

164、source,using different technologies,is directly transformed into two types of energy forms,in general:electricity using solar Photovoltaic(PV)and Concentrated Solar Power(CSP)systems,and solar heating,cooling and industrial process heat using solar thermal systems respectively where the first one do

165、minates in the energy sector.36WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202337Solar energy conversion technologies encompass various methods to harness the Suns energy and convert it into usable forms,electricity and heat,the primary technologies are illustrated in Figure 11 and discussed.Solar Photo-voltaic(P

166、V)System converts the sunlight into electricity directly using devices based on semiconductor material which are made of an ensemble of solar cells solar PV modules.A solar cell,referred to as a solar photovoltaic cell is fabricated from either silicon-based crystal such as monocrystalline,polycryst

167、alline,amorphous silicon,or non-silicon-based crystals such as cadmium telluride(CdTe),copper indium gallium selenide(CIGS),organic materials.Solar PV has become the key solar technology to generate electricity over the past two decades and has evolved into a mature technology owing to widespread gl

168、obal deployment.Concentrated solar power(CSP)generate electricity from solar radiation which is primarily converted into heat.This system consists of a collector to absorbs solar energy,storage system which usually comprised of water or a phase change fluid and a boiler that act as a heat exchanger

169、between the fluid and heat engines.In CSP plants the heat engine is a steam engine which converts thermal energy to mechanical energy which can be further used to drive an electrical generator to produce electricity.It is also practical to utilize the heat energy generated by the collector and store

170、d in thermal storage devices for industrial purposes where heating is one of the major energy intensive segments.Solar thermal system utilizes solar radiation to produce heat,which can be then used for multiple applications such as heating,cooling,drying,and cooking,in the residential,industrial,and

171、 utility sectors.In a solar thermal systems sunlight is collected and converted into heat.The collected heat is then transferred to a fluid such as water or air,which carries the heat to where it is needed termed as solar heating and cooling which can be further used in domestic or industrial segmen

172、ts.Figure 11:Different Solar TechnologiesSource:ISA Analysis 3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 4567SolarElectricitySolarThermalSolarTechnologiesSolar PVCSPBuildingHeating/CoolingIndustrial Process HeatSilicon BasedNon-SiliconBasedParabolicTroughSolar PowerTowerS

173、cenarios for Total Installed Capacity of Solar PV in 2050(GW)38Comparing the two main solar power technologies available to generate electricity,solar PV and CSP,it is evident that solar PV has been the dominating technology.In the last decade,with rising deployment of solar PV the already small sha

174、re of Solar CSP has shrunk further,while Solar PV has taken center-stage,as illustrated in Figure 12.CSP has seen limited deployment globally,and installations have primarily taken place in certain key countries like Spain and the United States,which have been the main markets in the past but have n

175、ot added significant capacity in recent years.However,integration of CSP with other renewable energy resources and replacement of fossil fuels with solar provides promising solutions out of which combination of CSP and conventional power plants such as coal based,and natural gas based are noticeable

176、 for the last 4few years.Both CSP and coal plants generate electricity from thermal energy;therefore,coal can be replaced with solar via central receiver CSP in coal power plants.The idea of repurposing the coal power plants by CSP is attracting considerable attention.The main advantage of CSP techn

177、ologies over PV is thermal energy storage,which costs much less than battery storage and can have a very long life without degradation.3.1 Solar Photovoltaics:Leading the way for solar technologiesSolar PV technology has evolved significantly over the years leading to increased efficiency,lower cost

178、,and broader adoption.Solar cells are the building blocks of solar PV modules.The task of a solar cell is to generate electricity.To implement large terawatt scale projects of solar photovoltaics,the material used for the cell manufacturing should be nontoxic,abundant,and cheap.The abundance of the

179、elements used is therefore important for the upscaling of the different technologies.Different PV cell technologies are demonstrated in Figure 13 below.4 Perspective on integration of concentrated solar power plants-ctab034.pdf()Figure 12:Annual Solar Power Generation TechnologiesSource:IRENA-Renewa

180、ble Energy Statistics 202369101112121413144%1%0%1%2%3%4%5%020040060080010001200201320142015201620172018201920202021Annual World Solar Power Generation,Technology Wise(TWh)Solar PVConcentrated Solar PowerCSP Share(%)WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202339Figure 13:Different PV TechnologiesThe first cate

181、gory of solar PV technology is referred to as crystalline PV which is traditionally bifurcated into two,multi and mono crystalline silicon.The second stream of PV technologies are termed as thin film technology.Thin film solar cells are made from films that are much thinner than the wafers,and there

182、fore use much less material.The processing techniques used for thin film solar cells are very different from the techniques used for crystalline silicon.There are different classes of thin film solar cells,namely,amorphous silicon,chalcogenide solar cells CdTe and CIGS,III-V material or Gallium Arse

183、nide(GaAs),organic,and perovskites.Many of the elements used in the thin film technology are rare,expensive,and toxic,due to which the upscaling of these technologies might be limited.Furthermore,the expensive technology like GaAs is used in specific applications for space where the generated power

184、density is the important matric.All of these constrains limit the acceptance of the thin film technology in the market.Figure 14 summarizes the worldwide research efforts of last three decade and depicts efficiencies of solar cell at the research scale.CIGSII-V/GaAsOrganicPerovskiteCrystalline Silio

185、nThin FilmSolar PVTechnologiesMonoPolyAmorphousSiliconCdTeSilicon TechnologiesNon-Silicon Technologies40Multi and mono crystalline silicon,have seen efficiency growth over the past decade to hit a maximum efficiency of and respectively 24.5%26.6%from 17.2%and over the last decade.25.1%Figure 14:Sola

186、r Cell Efficiency at Laboratory LevelIII-V multi junction concentrator solar cell,the technology with highest efficiency at lab scale has reached a maximum efficiency of 47%from an efficiency of 40.9%in 2009 whereas the efficiency of III-V on silicon is increased from 26.3%in 2016 to a maximum effic

187、iency of 35.7%in 2021.Other newer technologies in earlier stages of development have seen significant efficiency gains,with organic PV which attained a maximum efficiency of 15.0%in 2021 from 10.8%in 2015.Similarly,perovskite has seen an advancement in the efficiency from 15.5%in 2015 to 23.6%in 202

188、2.However,significant research and work needs to be done to convert these technologies from being promising newcomers to genuine contenders with proven stability and reliability to displace crystalline Silicon based PV.Source:Photovoltaic Report,Fraunhofer47.035.729.826.624.523.419.723.715.005101520

189、2530354045501993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019 2021Development of Laboratory Solar Cell EfficienciesIII-V Multi-Junction Concentrator Solar CellsIII-V on Si(2 Termimal)Perovskite on SiMono Crystalline SiliconMulti Crustalline SiliconCIGSCdTePerovskiteOrganicWORLD S

190、OLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202341Crystalline Silicon TechnologyThe first successful solar cell was made from crystalline silicon,which still is by far the most widely used PV material.The research and development of crystalline silicon has been going on for several years.The record efficiency of crystal

191、line silicon has increased from about 14%in 1975,to a current record of 27.6%of Kaneka,for an advanced crystalline silicon solar cell without light concentration.Using a single solar cell,however,is not practical for most applications.This is because a single solar cell delivers a limited amount of

192、power under fixed current and voltage conditions.To use solar electricity in practice,several solar cells must be connected to form a solar module,or PV module.In addition to the solar modules,several components are required to complete the solar system such as solar inverter,wiring components,meter

193、s,junction boxes,AC and DC disconnects,combiner boxes,transformers,electrical panels,and mounting structures.These additional components serve as the Balance of System(BoS)that complete a solar system.It is important to consider the other materials that make up most of the bill of materials(BoM)for

194、a solar module.Silicon makes up only 3-4%of the mass of a PV module,and glass,polymers,aluminum,and other metals such as silver are important materials used that affect the quality of a module and its output.The share of different materials in the composition of solar PV module is illustrated in Fig

195、ure 15.3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 45675 Delft University-Database42In contrast to weights,silicon is the valuable material in the module(34-45%)followed by silver,glass,aluminum etc.The value share of different material in a solar PV module is given in Fi

196、gure 16.Figure 15:Material Composition Shares of c-Si PV Modules by Weight(%)Source:IEA-Special Report on Solar PV Global Supply Chain68-72%Glass(Containing Antimony,0.1-0.3%)12-14%Aluminium0.03-0.08%Silver8-10%Polymers3-4%Silicon2-4%Copper0.03-0.1%Zinc0.01-0.05%Lead0.01-0.05%Tin0-0.2 Other Material

197、 Composition Shares of c-Si PV Modules by Weight(%)Figure 16:Material Composition Shares of c-Si PV Modules by Value(%)Source:IEA-Special Report on Solar PV Global Supply ChainMaterial Composition Shares of c-Si PV Modules by Value(%)0.1-0.5%Tin0.03-0.1%Zinc0-0.5 Other0-0.05%Lead35-45%Crystalline Si

198、licon11-15%Glass9-12%Aluminium5-12%Copper5-12%Copper9-23%SilverWORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202343Solar cells have a history dating back to the 19th century.However,it wasnt until 1954 that first efficient silicon solar cells were developed by Bell labs.Subsequently,in 1980s and 1990s,silicon based

199、 solar cells have seen significant growth compared to the technologies like silicon based and non-silicon based thin film technologies.The market share of different technologies for the last decade has been plotted as in Figure 17.3.1.1 Solar PV technologies&learning curve Figure 17:Share of Differe

200、nt Solar PV Technologies(%)Source:BNEF Database-ISA AnalysisShare of different Solar PV technologies(%)80%82%84%86%88%90%92%94%96%98%100%201220132014201520162017201820192020202120222023Crystalline SiliconThin Film,Si BasedThin Film,Non-Si Based 3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS

201、MULTIPLE SECTORS 4567The growth of silicon based solar cell is significant in the last decade and is expected to continue as silicon-based technologies cement their status as the PV technology of choice around the world.While the amorphous silicon-based PV did have a notable presence over a decade a

202、go,it diminished successively.Likewise,non-silicon based thin film technology witnessed a decline in the market share for the last decade.Evidently,crystalline Si based solar technologies have been the dominant technology for solar PV,when compared with thin film Si and thin film non-Si technologies

203、.In todays context,crystalline silicon PV evolved as synonymous to the silicon-based PV.In addition,within crystalline solar PV technology,mono crystalline silicon PV dominates in the market share over the multi crystalline PV technology as illustrated in Figure 18.44Figure 18:Share of Crystalline S

204、ilicon Solar PV TechnologiesSource:Photovoltaic Report,FraunhoferCrystalline solar modules,both monocrystalline and polycrystalline,are popular for several reasons.In the last decade,there has been significant improvements in efficiency and power ratings of solar PV modules.Off-scaling of production

205、 leads to low cost of the source material.It is evident from the variation of average selling price of crystalline module as a function of cumulative capacity between 1976 and 2022,plotted as a learning curve and depicted in Figure 19.01020304050607080902010201120122013201420152016201720182019202020

206、21Mono-SiMulti-SiShare of Crystalline Silicon Solar PV Technologies(%)WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202345Figure 19:Learning CureSource:2Q 2023 Global PV Market Outlook,BNEFLearning curve usually shown exponentially decreasing cost price in time until the technology of product is fully developed.Imp

207、ortant to note is that the sales prices,discounting some fluctuations,follow a largely exponential decay.The price of solar module price has been reduced significantly over the last 15 years;going from$5.8 per watt in 2008 to$0.21 per watt in the first quarter of 2023.The same period has seen cumula

208、tive capacity growth by two orders of magnitudes.The plot further indicates that for every doubling of the cumulative PV shipment the average selling prices decreases according to the learning rate,which is about 24.1%from 1976 to 2022,though a slight increase over previous level accounted for 1976

209、to 2020.Thats because of the increase of the price of solar module compared to previous years,which is mainly attributed to the short supply of the key feedstock polysilicon.3.2.Crystalline Silicon Solar PV TechnologiesThe global solar value and supply chain is largest for Crystalline Silicon solar

210、PV and consists of four main stages-polysilicon,ingot&wafer,cells,and modules.Although,these steps are discussed in detail in the successive sections of the report,here is the brief overview.Polysilicon is a very high pure form of silicon and is considered as the starting raw material for the crysta

211、lline silicon PV.The polysilicon is supplied either as chunks or granules to ingot makers,who melt it in crucible and pull either a monocrystalline cylindrical ingot using Czochralski process or cast into a multicrystalline rectangular ingot with directional solidification method.In either the 0.111

212、010010001101001,00010,000100,0001,000,000 10,000,000Historic prices from Paul Maycock,nominal,$/WChinese c-Si module price nominal$/W(BNEF,PV Infolink)Experience curve($/W real)2003197619852008Cumula?ve capacity(MW)20152022Learning Curve for Crystalline Silicon Modules(Per-W Price in 2022 Dollars vs

213、 Cumulative Capacity(MW)3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 456746case,the ingots are cut into brick and then further sliced into square(or pseudo square)thin slices using wire saws.A base dopant is already introduced at the ingot making station,thus the wafers en

214、tering the cell factories are based doped(either p or n).After the surface treatment,these wafers are doped with opposite polarity of the base dopant to form a p-n junction.while a silicon wafer is already processed into a cell at this stage,metallic patterns are applied to extract generated change

215、carriers.Several of these finished cells are interconnected the encapsulated to take the shape of the modules.3.2.1.Polysilicon:Although polysilicon cannot be seen as the starting point of the value chain,it considered as solar specific feedstock.Unlike the other parts of the PV value chain,which ha

216、ve processes similar from the semiconductor industry,polysilicon production is accomplished in a chemical factory environment.The lowest quality of silicon is the metallurgical silicon,considered as the raw material to produce polysilicon that is also used in other industries.The source material of

217、metallurgical silicon is quartzite,a rock of pure silicon oxide.During the production process,from the quartzite,the silicon is purified by removing the oxide-metallurgical silicon with a purity of 98%to 99%.The silicon material with the next level of purity is called polysilicon,produced by three d

218、ifferent methods-chemical vapor deposition(CVD)or Siemens process,fluidized bed reactor(FBR),and upgraded metallurgical grade silicon(UMG-Si).The Siemens process uses trichloro silane(TCS)gas output of reactions between metallurgical silicon and hydrogen chloride,as a feedstock and the process are e

219、nergy intensive,while FBR technology can use either TCS or silane as a feed and it consume much lesser 6energy compared to CVD.Although,UMG-Si is a low-cost method alternate to the other process,the purity of its silicon produced is low compared to the other two process and the technology was not ve

220、ry successful.The polysilicon is typically supplied in two forms-chunks of silicon and granular-,the difference for which originates from the manufacturing process.While the silicon produced from the CVD process is supplied as chunks,FBR technology produces granular polysilicon.Most of the industry

221、relies on the time-tested CVD process and it remains as the workhorse of the solar industry and enjoys a near monopoly for producing solar silicon.The expected market share of different polysilicon manufacturing technology is illustrated in Figure 20.6 Solar Energy,Delft University of Technology-htt

222、ps:/courses.edx.org/c4x/DelftX/ET.3034TU/asset/solar_energy_v1.1.pdf WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202347 3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 4567Insights and TrendsThe key development related to polysilicon,not only affecting the segment but also the PV industry

223、at large,is the short supply of polysilicon and subsequent price hike after 2020,hit a maximum price during the last ten years,followed by subsequent decline 2022 afterwards.The variation of polysilicon price during 2011 to 2023 is illustrated in Figure 21.the technology was not very successful.Figu

224、re 20:Market Share of Polysilicon Manufacturing TechnologiesSource:ITRPV 2023Figure 21:Polysilicon RateSource:BNEF,2Q 2023 Global PV Market Report ISA Analysis92.583.58278.57877.5614.51619.519.5201.52222.52.50102030405060708090100202220232025202720302033CVDFBROtherMarket Share of Polysilicon Technol

225、ogies010203040506070809020112012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 2024Polysilicon Rate($/kg)48Polysilicon prices were very high around 2011,but subsequently,an oversupply situation led to very low prices.A trade conflict between the US and China and low prices led several longt

226、ime leaders in this field not to invest further(Wacker,Hemlock),partly suspend production(REC Silicon)or even withdraw from silicon production altogether(Hanwha Chemical).Setting up silicon factories takes longer and is more expensive than investments in wafering,cell&module production.While giganti

227、c wafer and cell capacities have been announced and partly built,silicon expansion is lagging,even though very large capacities have been announced.The supply of polysilicon witnessed a glut 2015 onwards has normalized,and the balance of supply and demand become 7constricted in 2021.Polysilicon supp

228、ly is tight after wafer manufacturers have increased capacities very quickly and demand for solar installations has increased.As a result of the strong demand from wafer manufacturers,the polysilicon price in China skyrocketed from$9.5/kg at the beginning of 2020 to about four times that level,reach

229、ing$32-35/kg last year.However,the price has dropped to an average selling price of$28/kg in first quarter(Q1)of 82023,further to$7.85/kg in the week of July.The total polysilicon production in 2023 is expected to be 1,570,000 tones,primarily from Chinese manufactures.The supply will be adequate to

230、manufacture 600GW solar PV module in 2023,comparing with the most optimistic demand of 380GW.Considering the large supply glut,the possible year-end polysilicon price is estimated to be$10-13/kg.3.1.2 Ingot and Wafers:While ingot making and wafering are two different steps,they are typically accompl

231、ished under one roof.Here the polysilicon melted and solidified into a large and solid block of crystalline silicon-ingots,weighing several hundred kilograms.The ingot is then cut into thin slices called wafers.IngotsDepending on the method,ingots being produced,silicon material classified as monocr

232、ystalline or multi crystalline.Two process,Czochralski and float zone,are employed to produce monocrystalline ingots.Using a Czochralski method,monocrystalline ingots are carefully pulled from the molten silicon in a quartz crucible.While in float zone process,end of the polysilicon rod is heated up

233、 and melted using a radio frequent heating coil and the melted part is allowed to contact with a seed crystal where it solidifies afresh and adopts the orientation of the seed crystal.Next to monocrystalline silicon ingots,multi crystalline silicon ingots can be processed,termed as silicon casting.T

234、he multi crystalline silicon consist of many small crystalline grains,made by melting highly purified silicon in a dedicated crucible and pouring the molten silicon in a cubic shaped growth-?crucible.Subsequently,the molten silicon solidifies into multi crystalline ingots.Crystallization is also the

235、 station where the base doping is done.The p-type base doping is achieved with either boron or gallium and n-type doping is achieved with phosphorus.While multi crystalline is low cost with lower efficiency potential,in contrast to the monocrystalline.In fact,multi crystalline was dominating the seg

236、ment till 2017,the advent of PERC and compatibility of this cell architecture with monocrystalline has facilitated the unprecedented progress of monocrystalline.The trend of two type of crystals in the market is plotted in Figure 22 below.7 Special Report on Solar PV Global Supply Chains,IEA-https:/

237、 BNEF-Bimonthly PV Index,July.WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202349 3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 45679 ITRPV 2023-https:/www.vdma.org/international-technology-roadmap-photovoltaic Figure 22:Share of Mono and Multi Crystalline Si Ingot Manufacturing Capacity(

238、MW)Source:BNEF Database-ISA AnalysisAs shown in the graph,monocrystalline silicon is now by far the dominant technology being utilized for solar cell production,while multi crystalline silicon manufacturing capacity has stagnated and started to fall as the technology which is no longer the preferred

239、 material for crystalline silicon cells.The trends to larger ingot mass production are expected to continue and Czochralski process growth is found to be the 9mainstream technology in crystallization.A major development related to crystal growth segment is the usage of gallium doping for p-type inst

240、ead of the more established practice of using boron.The switch helps in protecting the PV substrate from Light Induced Degradation(LID)in p-type modules that originates from the formation of boron-oxygen complex.Within just a few years,the approach became the state of the art;ITRPV estimates the dis

241、appearance of boron as dopant for p-type material by the end of 2023.In addition,all advanced cell architectures beyond PERC are typically employed on n-type base wafer.The phosphorus doped silicon substrates have longer lifetimes,as the holes of n-type material are less sensitive to many common met

242、allic impurities in silicon,such as iron.Thus,n-type wafers come with higher efficiency potential.Since the base wafer is doped with phosphorus,there is no possibility for the formation of a boron-oxygen complex,the root cause for light-induced degradation(LID).As a result,the efficiency loss can be

243、 avoided.WaferWhen it comes to wafering,primarily there are two process-sawing and silicon ribbon method.As the name indicate,in sawing,silicon ingots are sawed into thin wafers using wires.While in the silicon ribbon method,silicon solidified on a high temperature resistant string which is pulled u

244、p from a silicon melt to form thin film of silicon,ribbon,which is further cut into wafers.The electronic quality of ribbon silicon is not as good as that of monocrystalline produced through the first method,hence become less 050000100000150000200000250000300000350000400000450000Multi-CrystallineMon

245、o-CrystallineShare of Mono and Multi Crystalline Si Ingot Manufacturing Capacity(MW)popular.The most important development in the sawing technology has been the shift to diamond wire(DW)based sawing post 2018,from the slurry technology resulted in reduction of silicon consumption significantly along

246、 with increase in wafer size.The DW based sawing is now considered as the most suitable method available for wafering and offers significant cost reduction.Increased availability of the low-cost monocrystalline wafers produced with DW sawing has clearly facilitated the wide adaptation of PERC cell a

247、rchitecture.Nevertheless,significant amount of silicon has been wasted while sawing,referred to as kerf loss.The key performance indicators of the wafers are wafer size and thickness.One of the most important developments related to wafering that has influenced the downstream value chain components

248、has been larger wafer formats.The rationale behind the approach is that the output power of a PV device is a function of surface area.Thus,increasing the cell size by employing larger wafers is the simplest way to boost module power.The PV industry has only just started to identify the potential of

249、using larger wafers.The 5-inch(125 mm)wafer size was the de facto standard until 2006,which was then replaced by 156 mm for about a decade.In 2017,a marginally larger wafer size of 156.75mm called M2 was commercialized,which account for about a 1%gain in surface area.Around the same time,a few verti

250、cally integrated companies ventured into even larger sizes such as 158.75 mm full square called G1 and 161.75 mm wafers denoted as M4.In 2018,M6 was first introduced on multicrystalline followed by monocrystalline during 2019.M6-160 mm wafers have about 12%higher surface area compared to the M2 form

251、at.It appeared like M6 was the largest wafer size and would remain so for some time,a notion that was short lived.Less than 3 months later,in August 2019,a 210 mm wafer-G12 was introduced.In response to this move,vertically integrated companies came out with M10-182 mm wafers in 2020.In current mark

252、et M6,M10 and G12 are the mainstream wafer sizes,dominated by M10,and the larger formats are expected to take over the market as shown in Figure 23 below.50WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023Reduction in the silicon consumption per watt has always been a subject of the optimization and it became even

253、 more important with the polysilicon shortage.Even during the time of the oversupply of the silicon,wafers have been the significant cost contributors to cells.The cost of silicon wafer in turn is mainly governed by the amount of silicon used,which can be lowered by reducing either thickness of wafe

254、r or the kerf.The Figure 24 below summarizes the trend of wafer thickness and silicon consumption per watt.51Figure 23:World Market Share of Mono-Si Wafer SizesSource:ITRPV 20230%20%40%60%80%100%202220232025202720302033G1:158.75 x 158.75 mm&M4:161.7 x 161.7 mmM6:166.0 x 166.0 mmM10:182.0 x 182.0 mmG

255、12:210.0 x 210.0 mm G12:210.0 x 210.0 mmWorld Market Share of Mono-Si Wafer SizesFigure 24:Silicon Usage and Wafer Thickness TrendsSource:Photovoltaic Report,2023-Fraunhofer024681012141618050100150200250300350Wafer Thickness(Nano Meter)Silicon Usage(g/Wp)Nano Meterg/WpSilicon Usage and Wafer Thickne

256、ss Trends 3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 4567Monocrystalline silicon wafer thickness is seeing a remarkable reduction post 2020.For p-type mono wafers,M6 wafers with a thickness of 160 m was standard in 2022.Furthermore,p-type wafers are anticipated to underg

257、o a fasted thickness reduction to reach 130 m,for both M6 and M10,in the next 10 years.The present standard wafer thickness for n-type monocrystalline silicon wafer,for M6 wafer,is 150 m.In the current year,ITRPV-2023 anticipated a 5 to 10 m reduction in the n-type wafer thickness for all the corres

258、ponding formats of p-type wafers.The minimum thickness by 2023 would be around 125 m.Reducing the kerf loss,which is the silicon lost during the slicing process for wafering,is also an effective way of cutting-down the silicon consumption per watt.The kerf loss can be reduced by using thinner tungst

259、en diamond wire.The continuous optimization of the wafer slicing process has resulted a kerf width reduction from 85 m in 2017 to current level of about 55 m,which is expected to decline to 43 m in next 10 years,according to ITRPV-2023.A point to be noted about kerf is that a few companies and insti

260、tutes were working on approaches that can avoid kerf completely.These kerf-less technologies are most based on cleaving of wafer directly from silicon bricks and were in focus during the days of silicon short supply but are no longer in focus due to the improved silicon supply situation.Even with re

261、cent silicon shortages,kerf-fewer wafering technologies are not a significant focus area.Thinner wafers and reduction in kerf losses will yield overall cost savings.Multicrystalline wafers are cheaper than all mono variants due to the lower quality input material used.Additionally,within monocrystal

262、line wafers,the G12 wafer size is the most expensive,considering its larger size and greater polysilicon usage.The variation in the wafer price for the last decade is summarized and plotted in Figure 25.52As per the Photovoltaic Report,2023-Fraunhofer,the silicon usage per has by Wpdroppedapproximat

263、ely in 2021 in comparison with 85%2004.For wafer thickness,the 180 m remainedmainstream for quite a long time from to very 2008till.Since the silicon shortage hit the industry,2016the industry is gradually thinning down the wafers.WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023Wafer prices for all categories hav

264、e steadily increased since 2020,driven by disrupted supply due to the Covid-19 pandemic and the high price of solar polysilicon.Price increased vary across categories but range from 150-200%from 2020 to August 2022.Post 2022,price dropped by more than half to reach$0.34 and$0.48 per piece in the wee

265、k of July 2023 for M10 and G12 respectively.It is also envisaged a 4%hike in the wafer production cost due to a five-fold rise in the prices of solar crucible a consumable to make solar ingots,compared with a year ago.Though,solar installation not being affected by the increase in the rate either 10

266、in short or long term.3.1.3 Crystalline PV CellSolar cell development is the heart of the solar PV manufacturing process,as a fully functional PV device is formed at the end of the cell manufacturing lines.The silicon wafers,the incoming raw material for cell lines,are processed into cells by variou

267、s design principle and high-efficient device architectures like starting from Back Surface Field(BSF),Passivated Emitter Rear Contact(PERC),Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact(TOPCon),to Hetero-Junction solar cells(HJ).In addition,the recent marker observed a few designs principle behind various contact

268、ing architectures like interdigitated back contact(IBC),Bifacial and Metal Wrap Through(MWT).On a broader perceptive the,the design principles of crystalline silicon solar cell technology are highlighted in Figure 26 below and discussed in brief in the succeeding sections of the report.53Figure 25:W

269、afer Price Development($/Piece)Source:BNEF-Bimonthly PV Index July 20230.00.20.40.60.81.01.21.41.61.8Jan 2,2012Jan 2,2013Jan 2,2014Jan 2,2015Jan 2,2016Jan 2,2017Jan 2,2018Jan 2,2019Jan 2,2020Jan 2,2021Jan 2,2022Jan 2,2023MultiMonoWafer Price Development($/Piece)3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APP

270、LICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 4567All these design rules are based on the objectives to reduce charge carrier recombination losses and optical losses.To reduce charge carrier recombination losses,different concepts such as surface passivation of cells,reduction of contact area,selective highly d

271、oped emitters,back surface field,and the metal contact grid are incorporated,whereas in the case of reduction in optical losses,shading contacts,anti-reflection coating,texturing surface and interfaces,parasitic absorption by non-active photovoltaic layers,and back reflectors play the key roles.Back

272、 Surface Filed(BSF)technology was once the dominant silicon-based cell technology for many decades till 2014 or 2015.The light hit on the top of the solar wafer will pass through and may reach the back surface,where it needs to be absorbed in between.When light has not been absorbed in the silicon w

273、afer after passing through the bulk,part of the light might escape at the back surface that will cause reduction in the conversion efficiency of solar cells.The transmitting light at the back surface can be reflected to the absorber layer using a reflector,which is in a standard crystalline silicon

274、solar cell design is present in the form of a fully metallized back contact referred to as BSF technology.The reflection at a metal back contact is roughly 90%for aluminum and thus it is used as a BSF contact.With surface texturing,light will be scattered and coupled into the device at an angle.Text

275、uring the wafers is therefore also a useful tool to limit the thickness of the wafer while maintaining the short circuit current density and increasing open circuit voltage.Passivated Emitter Rear Locally diffused(PERL),which uses a p-type float-zone silicon wafer,has been an example for various tec

276、hnology developed afterwards.In PERL,the emitter is passivated with a silicon oxide layer on top of the emitter to suppress the surface recombination velocity,a parameter that is a key impediment to increasing a solar cells efficiency,as much as possible.The surface recombination velocity has been s

277、uppressed to the level that the open-circuit voltages with values of above 700 mV have been obtained using the PERL concept.At the rear surface of the solar cell,point contacts have been used in combination with thermal oxide passivation layers.The oxide operates as a passivation layer of the noncon

278、tacted area,to reduce the unwelcome surface recombination.The PERL concept was the first crystalline silicon device in which a conversion efficiency of 25%was demonstrated.Since the PERL concept includes some expensive processing steps and the unprecedented progress of the PERC in inters of both low

279、ering costs as well as improving efficiency has made the PERL less attractive.54Figure 26:Various Crystalline Silicon Design PrinciplesCrystalline SiliconDesign PrinciplesBSFPERC/PERLTOPConHJIBCBifacialMWTWORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023Passivated Emitter Rear Contact(PERC)architecture is a more c

280、ommercially viable crystalline silicon wafer technology,which is inspired on the PERL cell configuration.The PERC concept decreases back recombination by inserting a patterned dielectric layer between the silicon and aluminum layers,so that only the aluminum contacts a small portion of the cell area

281、.Furthermore,the local point contacts do not use a local BSF but an additional dielectric to reduce the surface recombination.PERC is currently the state-of-the art cell architecture in the mainstream and still provides the best cost performance ratio.Tunnel Oxide Passivated Contact(TOPCon)Solar Cel

282、l technology,in front surface processing,is almost like PERL and PERC solar cells in which localized contacts with a back surface are introduced to reduce recombination at back contact.In the TOPCon solar cell,to prevent the minority carriers to recombine at the back contact,a very thin oxide layer

283、of approximately 2 nanometers is placed in between the n-type base and a phosphorous doped n+layer.Now,since the oxide layer is present,it is almost impossible for the minority carriers,which are holes for the n-type wafer,to reach the back contact of the cell as they cannot pass the potential barri

284、er introduced by the oxide layer.In addition,the electrons experience a smaller barrier than the holes.Thus,a large fraction of the electrons can move through this barrier and this phenomenon is called tunnelling.Therefore,electrons are able to tunnel through the barrier and be collected at the back

285、 contact with virtually zero loss.Contact patterning,which is a relatively difficult and expensive processing step,is therefore not necessary and the back side of the wafer can be entirely metallized making this technology cheap in processing.Heterojunction(HJ)solar cells,a junction by two different

286、 semiconductor materials,is an alternative concept with high efficiency cell architecture.In the crystalline silicon wafer-based heterojunction two types of silicon-based semiconductor materials,one is a n-type float zone monocrystalline silicon wafer,the other material is hydrogenated amorphous sil

287、icon.For high-quality wafers,like this n-type float-zone monocrystalline silicon wafer,the recombination of charge carriers at the surface determines the lifetime of the charge carriers.The advantage of the hetero-junction solar cell concept is that the amorphous silicon acts like a very good passiv

288、ation material.In this approach the highest possible lifetimes for charge carriers are accomplished.The crystalline silicon wafer-based heterojunction solar cell has the highest achieved open-circuit voltages among the crystalline silicon technologies.Panasonic and Kaneka achieved an open-circuit vo

289、ltage of over 750 mV.In a hetero-junction solar cell,the charge carriers are transported to contact through a transparent conductive oxide material,like indium tin oxide(ITO),which is deposited on top of the p-doped layer.The ITO is needed as the conductivity of the p-type layer is too poor.One of t

290、he benefits of the hetero-junction solar cell concept is that it allows to introduce the same contact scheme at the n-type back side.It means that this solar cell can be used in a bifacial configuration,it can collect light from the front,and scattered and diffuse light falling on the backside of th

291、e solar cell.55 3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 4567Interdigitated Back Contact(IBC)solar cell concept does not suffer from shading losses of a front metal contact grid.All the contacts responsible for collecting of charge carriers at the n-and p-side are posi

292、tioned at the back of the crystalline wafer solar cell.The fact that the contacts do not cause any shading losses at the back,allows them to become larger.An interdigitated back contact is lacking one large p-n junction,instead,the cell has many localized junctions.The passivation layer can have a l

293、ow refractive index such that it operates like a backside mirror which will reflect the light,that is not absorbed during the first pass through the solar cell back into the absorber layer.Bifacial solar cell is an architecture in which both at the front and at the back side metal contact grid has b

294、een placed.This allows light incident from both the front and back to be absorbed in the PV active layers,increasing the cells performance.Normal solar cells including a non-transparent back sheet are referred to as mono facial,where in the case of bifacial modules,transparent sheet is used as back

295、sheet which can transmit the light from the backside of cell.Metal Wrap Through(MWT)is the latest concept in the market demonstrated some years ago by SCHOTT Solar and Solland Solar.For a solar module based on standard crystalline silicon solar cells,the individual wafers that form the cells are con

296、nected in series by connecting the front metallization grid of one cell to the back contact of the next cell.This process is called contact tabbing.A consequence of these interconnections is that the cells cannot be placed directly side by side,but that spacing is needed between the cells.This area

297、is accounted as loss when looking at the aperture area of a solar module.The MWT prevents this loss in the module area,as it wraps the metal front contact through the base of each cell and places both front and back contacts side by side on the backside of the cells.In this way the electrons collect

298、ed by the front emitter are transported to the back of the solar cell.Evidently,care must be taken that the via does not create a short circuit.Individual cells can now be placed much closer to each other.All the above-mentioned technologies are limited by physical constraints in terms of the effici

299、encies they can achieve.These constraints can be overcome using tandem cells,which involve stacking of p-n junctions,each of which form semiconductors that respond to a different section of the solar spectrum.This allows for greater absorption of incident sunlight,and thus leads to higher efficienci

300、es.56WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 2023Insights and TrendsTOPCon,HJ and IBC are seeing initial stages of commercial production.Major manufacturers have commercial offerings across these technologies that feature amongst their“top of the line”modules.However,further Research and Development is requir

301、ed to obtain full efficiency gains and to bring down manufacturing costs to competitive levels with respect to the current dominant cell technology,PERC.Bifacial and MWT are also expected to contribute significant share in the market in future but presently it is nominal as compared to the PERC.The

302、market share of different technologies is shown in Figure 27.57Figure 27:World Market Share of c-Si Cell Architecture(%)Source:ITRPV-2023Every technology has a limit and so has PERC.The PERC technology has reached its practical cell efficiency limit at about 22.5%in mainstream and going beyond does

303、not make economic sense.As a result,PV manufactures have again started focusing on advanced cell architectures.According to ITRPV,it is expected that TOPcon solar cell concept will take over the major market by 2033 followed by HJ solar cells that will cross-over PERC.The advancements of conversion

304、efficiency achieved by different technologies which have significant share in the market is plotted as in Figure 28.3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 4567020406080100202220232025202720302033BSFPERC on p-type mono-SiPassivated contacts on p-type mono SiTopcon on

305、n-type mono SiSi-heterojunction(SHJ)on n-type mono-SiBack contact(p and n-type)Wafer Price Development($/Piece)58Figure 28:Cell Efficiency ProgressSource:TOP SOLAR MODULES 2022/H1-2023,TaiyangnewsAll these advanced cell technologies are at different levels of efficiency and are progressing at a diff

306、erent pace.IBC so far remined most effacement technology in the commercial space with an achieved cell efficiency of 24.5%in 2023,which has consistently increased from an already high base of 22%in the last 10 years.TOPCon and HJ are the next with cell efficiency of 23.8%and 24%respectively in 2023.

307、TOPCon and has seen the highest increase in efficiency,13%,likely due to realizing it as the in-focus technology at least in the next 10 years.It is also clear that certain technologies are no longer relevant for state-of-the-art installations.BSF-Multi,BSF-Mono and Multi PERC can now be considered

308、old technologies and should be avoided for future projects due to low efficiencies,unless the cost of land and the module prices are exceptionally attractive.However,Mono PERC may be overtaken by higher efficiency technologies such as TOPCon,HJT,and IBC if cost-effective manufacturing is achieved.Av

309、erage cost per watt of solar cell is depicted in Figure 29 as below which nearly follow the trends of wafer.PERCTOPConHJIBC192021222324252014201520162017201820192020202120222023(June)Cell Efficiency Progress(%)192021222324252014201520162017201820192020202120222023(June)Cell Efficiency Progress(%)PER

310、CTOPConHJIBCWORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202359As we know,the mono crystalline is costlier compared to multi crystalline silicon.The cell price of mono crystalline silicon has dropped from$0.62 in 2012 to$0.10 per watt by 2020.Subsequently,due to Covid pandemic and silicon shortage experienced,cell

311、 price has taken a upward track to hit a maximum of$0.17 per watt at the end of 2022,thereafter reduced to$0.09 per watt in June 2023,which is the lowest price for the last decade.The price of multicrystalline silicon followed similar trend as seen in the case of monocrystalline.As per the latest da

312、ta from BNEF,the price of multicrystalline silicon is$0.13 per watt in 2022.3.2.4.Solar ModuleAssembly of cells to Solar PV Module is the final stage of the solar PV manufacturing process.Unlike other parts of the c-Si value chain,this step involves assembly of different materials rather than manufa

313、cturing.As a result,it does not require the same level of technical skill,and assembly lines can be built in relatively short periods of time and in diverse locations.Nowadays,wafer-based c-Si PV modules occupy about 95%of the market globally,while the rest of it is occupied by thin film PV modules.

314、To generate the desirable voltage and current,solar cells are interconnected after which modules are formed by encapsulating the cells with several layers of polymers and glass to protect the electrical circuit from physical damage and weather.The pictorial representation of a crystalline PV module

315、is given in Figure 30.Figure 29:Solar Cell Price DevelopmentSource:BNEF-Bimonthly PV Index July 2023Figure 30:Crystalline Silicon PV Module EvolutionSource:Trina Solar0.00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7Jan 2,2012Jan 2,2013Jan 2,2014Jan 2,2015Jan 2,2016Jan 2,2017Jan 2,2018Jan 2,2019Jan 2,2020Jan 2,2021Jan 2,202

316、2Jan 2,2023Solar Cell Price Development($/W)Mono CellsMulti CellsAluminium FrameGlassEncapsulant-Ethylvinyl acetate(EVA)Solar CellsEVABack Sheet-Tedlar/GlassJunction Box 3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 456760In general,it consists of a transparent front cover,

317、a polymeric encapsulation,mono-or polycrystalline silicon cells with metal grids on the front and rear and solder bonds electrically connecting the individual cells.Following these layers,a rear layer,tedlar or glass,is placed at the back of the cells and a frame is mounted around the outer edge.Sol

318、ar PV module can be referred to as solar panels if the modules are panelized with a metallic frame to strengthen and protect the modules.An additional PV module component,namely the junction box-a plastic box,located at the rear of the module.The junction box encompasses busbar that enables all or s

319、ome of the cells to be connected in series and some rows in parallel.The output connection of a module is enabled by the junction boxes.All the elements used for crystalline silicon are abundant,and none of them are toxic,rare,or precious.This is one of the major reasons why crystalline silicon is t

320、he dominant technology in the market.Cell Efficiency The key performance indicators of the module are power,efficiency and reliability.A solar module is a rare commodity that comes with a warranty of 25 years or 30 years(in case of glass-glass),which is why it contains several protective layers.Figu

321、re 31 represents the development of module efficiency in the last decade.Figure 31:PV Module Average Efficiency ProgressSource:ITRPV-2023,ISA AnalysisThe average efficiency of a solar module has been ever increasing with many advancements taking place at both the cell and module levels.The average m

322、odule efficiency in 2022 was 21.5%,a leap of 2.8%absolute over 2021s level of 20.9.According to ITRPV-2023,PERC technology is anticipated to show an average efficiency of 21.4%by 2023 and up to 22.5%by 2033.TOPCon and HJ technologies are expected to be ahead of PERC with an efficiency of 22.2%and 22

323、.4%respectively in 2023 and both will attain 24%in 2033.The report also refer Si based tandem concepts,which are supposed to be in the market post 2025 with a module efficiency of 26%in 2027 and 27.5%in 2033.Module Average Efficiency Progress(%)14.72212141618202224201020122014201620182020202214.721.

324、5121416182022242010201220142016201820202022Module Average Efficiency Progress(%)WORLD SOLAR TECHNOLOGY REPORT 202361Module Power RatingWhile selecting a PV module,more than efficiency,the rated power has higher prominence at the module level.The power output generated by each individual PV module ha

325、s been steadily increasing over time.The development of power rating over the last decade is demonstrated in Figure 32.Solar modules made of larger wafers are becoming the new mainstream product,driving increase in power output,with approximately the same or a smaller number of cells assembled.Large

326、 manufacturers have accelerated the transition from smaller sizes of wafer to larger one in the past two years.The newer,larger wafers have a side length of 210mm-G12,or 182mm-M10 compared to previous wafers of 166mm-M6.Power rating is,likewise,depended on number of cells and the design concepts.Inc

327、reasing number of cells and moving to larger wafer formats has mainly boosted the power of the solar modules.Today,modules with power rating near to 700 Wp are being available in the market,using advanced cell architectures and larger G12 wafer formats.Average has from in 2010 module powerincreased2

328、42 Wto approximately in 2021.This trend in power 400 Wincrease has accelerated rapidly in recent years.2011-2018 witnessed an increase of while 2018-2021 has seen 50 W an increase of whereas in 2021-2022 development 100 Win power rating observed an upsurge of.This 200 Wincrease in average module pow

329、er can be attributed to increase in wafer and module size.3 SOLAR TECHNOLOGIES:CROSS-CUTTING APPLICATIONS ACROSS MULTIPLE SECTORS 4567Figure 32:Average Module Power TrendSource:ITRPV-2023,ISA Analysis242600010020030040050060070020052010201520202025Average Module Power Trend(W)62Cell to Module Power

330、RatioAssessing module power improvements independent from the cell level is also possible.The so-called cell-to-module(CTM)power ratio,which is the ratio of module output power to the sum of power output of each of cells embedded in the module,is a good metric to assess developments and the stabilit

331、y of the entire module production process.Interestingly,several module processing steps,such as interconnection,stringing and lamination,lead to better light management and optical gains,which will contribute to a CTM above unity or more than 100%.But module manufacturing also induces various loss m

332、echanisms,such as resistive,mismatch and optical losses,which offset the optical gains and result in a net power loss.Despite the dominating role of various loss mechanisms,todays PV modules have the capability to reach a CTM power ratio of more than 100%.In simple terms,this can be achieved with th

333、e proper choice and mix of complementing materials that result in higher optical gains than combined optical and electrical losses.Advanced interconnection will also help in reducing the resistance losses,pushing CTM power ratios further up.The half-cell approach is one good example here.Some of the strategies to improve CTM ratio is discussed below.Improvement in light management achieved primari