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1、Circular batteriesCircular business models for the lithium-ion battery industry2 PhotocreditARUP AUTHORSEmily Gentilini Michael Salt(Alumnus)ARUP CONTRIBUTORSCarol LemmonsRichard Boyd Joyanne ManningShaun RainfordGiles ProwseDavid DawsonKaren ScarboroughFranklin KwanVictor CaringalACKNOWLEDGEMENTSIn

2、tervieweesARC Laureate Professor Veena SahajwallaDirector,ARC Green Manufacturing Research Hub;Director,NSW Circular;Director,Centre for Sustainable Materials Research&Technology(SMaRTUNSW)Tynan Coles CEO,SoltaroJean-Denis Curt Head of Recycling and Circular Economy,Renault GroupProf.Marcello Colled

3、aniAssociate Professor,Politecnico di MilanoResearch Associate,Istituto di Sistemi e Tecnologie Industriali Intelligenti per ilManifatturiero AvanzatoLibby Chaplin CEO,Australian Battery Recycling Initiative Zarko MeseldzijaCTO,American Manganese IncLaura Perez CasadoProject Coordinator Smart Grids&

4、Energy Storage,InnoEnergy Scandinavia European Battery AllianceSu Wild-River,Sarah MayDirector,Assistant Director,Waste Policy,ACT Government Callum BlakePolicy Officer,Department of Agriculture,Water and the Environment Australian Federal Government Dr Lachlan BlackhallHead,Battery Storage&Grid Int

5、egration Program,Australian National UniversityChiara Catgiu Senior Research Analyst,Ellen MacArthur Foundation13 LIB technology15 LIB market16 A linear value chain18 ChallengesIntroductionExecutive summary090612Lithium-ion batteriesContents3 Photocredit29 Technical and biological cycles32 Product a

6、nd process design37 Circular supplies39 Sharing platforms41 Product-as-a-service43 Lifetime extension48 Refurbish and maintain51 Recycling facility59 Policymakers61 Industry63 Investors64 Together66 Conclusion68 Further reading69 Glossary263158Circular economyBusiness models for the circular economy

7、RecommendationsIf the world is to develop sustainably,run efficiently and find new sources of value,we need to reduce the waste produced from all sectors,including batteries.Responsible consumption and productionAchieving this contributes to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 12,which f

8、ocuses on doing more and better with less in order to provide better social and environmental outcomes globally.The lithium-ion battery industry has implications beyond Goal 12.When combined with circular economy principles,the industry could generate significant economic,environmental and social va

9、lue.The industry also influences Goal 7(Affordable and Clean Energy),Goal 9(Industry,Innovation and Infrastructure)and Goal 17(Partnerships for the Goals).4ForewordThe global challenge to develop a decarbonized and circular economy requires a huge transformation of global business models.Clean energ

10、y transition brings opportunities for investment and job creation and represents one of the most effective responses to this global challenge.It can create a range of environmental sustainability,efficiency,digitalization and technological innovations.To unlock these opportunities,the nexus of renew

11、able energy,smart grids and demand electrification will play an increasingly central role.The only historical challenge for the continued growth of renewable energy has been the possibility to store electricity.In the past it was achieved mainly through electricity conversion to other forms,such as

12、gravitational energy in pumped hydro storage plants,with limited application potential.Batteries are a game changer thanks to the extraordinary evolution they have undergone becoming an effective solution to extensively apply energy storage in power plants,grids,electric vehicles,and residential dis

13、tributed energy resources.A clean energy transition underpinned by battery technology must be sustainable and not create further externalities in terms of resource consumption or waste creation.It has to take place in a circular economy context right from its initial stages.In recent years,we have w

14、itnessed a strong technological acceleration in the battery sector,in terms of performance and costs leading to uptake in a diversity of applications.This growth in uptake of battery technologies increases the need to design circular economy design chains,not only in regards to resources but also th

15、e business models and the institutional and regulatory context.This study by Arup represents an important contribution in this direction.Taking a quantitative and agile approach,the research addresses the issue in a strategic manner through the entire supply chain as it should within a circular econ

16、omy framework.This allows us to understand the key issues and opportunities in terms of design,raw materials,models of use,and closing whole-of-life cycles.Furthermore,the methodological approach to address new topics with an integrated decarbonisation and circular economy focus is best-practice and

17、 will be fundamental to successfully achieve the transition to a new economic model.Luca Meini Global Head of Circular Economy Enel Group5Lithium-ion batteries(LIBs)will play an important role in the required shift to a more renewable,resourceful and low-carbon future.However,the ways in which LIBs

18、are currently made,used and disposed of are incompatible with this sustainable future.The current linear lifecycle of most batteries leads to adverse environmental,social and economic outcomes globally.The circular economy presents an opportunity to address these adverse outcomes and shift to more s

19、ustainable and resilient supply chains.It is expected that business models based on circular economy principles,known as Circular Business Models(CBMs)represent a US$4.5 trillion global growth opportunity that can contribute to sustainable economic development.This report,Circular Batteries,aims to

20、harness circular economy thinking and stimulate leadership in the LIB industry by:Analysing the current state of the industry Outlining how CBMs could,or already do,apply to the LIB lifecycle Recommending ways forward for industry stakeholders.Executive summaryThrough research,interviews and applica

21、tion of circular economy ideas,this report describes the significant opportunities for value creation and new enterprises that are both present and ready to be explored by industry participants globally.With exponential growth anticipated in the uptake of LIBs globally,policymakers,industry and inve

22、stors need to work together to establish effective policy,technology and business models that facilitate a circular economy for the industry.To unlock these opportunities,the following key recommendations are made for industry stakeholders.US$4.5tnCBM global growth opportunity6 Petmal/istockAddress

23、gaps in data and information for both new and existing businessesDesign batteries for cascading reuse and ease of disassemblyLead partnerships to develop scalable projects that address local and global environmental concernsIndustry should demonstrate leadership and collaboration through partnership

24、s,data sharing initiatives and designing for reuse and disassembly.Policymakers should foster a supportive regulatory,research and business environment for CBMs locally and internationally.Implement product stewardship schemes to allocate responsibility for LIB components and materialsDevelop financ

25、ial incentives and use policy levers to spur demand for circular solutionsWork with industry and across governments to facilitate standardisation where appropriateTogether,the LIB industry will need to increase collaboration and coordination in order to loop material flows and increase the value kep

26、t in the supply chain.Establish,grow and fast-track partnerships across and outside of the supply chain,and grow global initiativesDecarbonise production processes and national gridsStandardise battery design and data management processes,including labelling and materials passportsKey recommendation

27、s7Leverage impact investment to achieve beneficial social and environmental impact alongside financial returnCoordination and prioritisation of investment into the most effective CBM opportunitiesConsider the resilience impact and benefits of CBM opportunitiesWork with industry and policymakers to d

28、evelop conditions that promote CBM investmentInvestors with social and environmental impact objectives should work with government and industry to coordinate and prioritise investment into the most effective CBMs.Product and process designThe World Economic Forum(WEF)estimates,that production emissi

29、ons from LIBs in 2030 could easily be halved to around 100 Mt at negative cost,and therefore reduce battery costs by 23%while also reducing associated emissions.Circular suppliesBy 2025,it is estimated the processing of materials and electro-chemical production stages of the value chain will be wort

30、h US$41bn and US$297bn,respectively.Sharing platformsGlobally,if 50%of electric vehicles(EVs)became vehicle-to-grid compatible,17 Mt of carbon emissions would be saved per annum and US$22bn of additional value would be created.Vehicle-to-grid solutions could lower costs for electric vehicle charging

31、 infrastructure by up to 90%.Product-as-a-serviceThe mobility-as-a-service market is anticipated to be worth US$70.4bn by 2030.Lifetime extensionThe WEF estimates that if 61%of EV batteries were re-used,20 GWh of energy storage systems(ESS)would be avoided,saving 1 Mt of CO2 and US$2bn in 2030,incre

32、asing in the long-term.Refurbish and maintainThe effect of increasing repair of faulty batteries from 80%to 95%by 2030 is estimated to retain 30 GWh of battery capacity.This equates to 2 Mt of carbon emissions and US$2bn saved in 2030.A recent study showed that up to a 31%increase in profit can be a

33、chieved if remanufacturing is integrated in LIB supply chain networks.Recycling facilityIn 2030,based on current policies,the number of spent batteries will represent around 6.5%of the 2030 demand.In Australia alone,the value of recoverable metals from the 138,000t of LIB waste anticipated in 2036 i

34、s estimated to be between A$813m and A$3.09bn.8IntroductionThe market for batteries is expected to grow significantly as a result of the increased uptake of electric vehicles as well as residential and utility-scale energy storage systems.LIBs are high-density rechargeable batteries currently used i

35、n businesses,homes and,in ever increasing numbers,other applications.There are around 4,000 MW of batteries globally,while the International Energy Agency(IEA)predicts there will be more than 100,000 MW by 2030 and over 200,000 MW by 2040.These batteries will play an important role in the required s

36、hift to a more renewable,sustainable and low-carbon future.However,the ways in which LIBs are currently made,used and disposed of are incompatible with a sustainable future.Lithium-ion batteries are a key enabler for global decarbonisation.They can facilitate greater use of renewable electricity acr

37、oss several key industries by offering high energy density storage and a more compact way to store electricity in vehicles and electricity networks.In electric vehicles(EVs)they will enable different forms of transport with lower carbon intensity than an average internal combustion engine vehicle.1

38、LIBs have gained popularity among automobile manufacturers as an alternative to nickel metal batteries used in EVs due to their small size and high energy density.At the utility scale,they provide flexibility,support and resilience to intermittent renewable energy in the electricity networks.They ca

39、n also support distributed renewable energy solutions and increase the ability to provide electricity in hard-to-reach communities.The market for LIBs is growing rapidly.Driven by technology and cost improvements,we are approaching a tipping point where we expect to see rapid deployment of high-dens

40、ity LIB storage solutions in businesses,homes and vehicles.Since 2010,the annual deployed capacity of LIBs has increased by 500%globally.2 Traditionally used in consumer electronics during the 1990s and early 2000s,LIB applications are moving far beyond this small scale.In particular,they are increa

41、singly being used in mobility applications:EV sales represented 2.6%of global car sales in 2019,bringing the total to 7.2 million a significant increase from the 17,000 on the road in 2010.3 1 Assuming current global average carbon intensity of power generation2 Global Battery Alliance,n.d.,The Lith

42、ium-ion Battery End-of-life Market A baseline study 3 International Energy Agency,2019,Global EV Outlook 20204 Cairn ERA via Jaffe,2017,Vulnerable Links in the Lithium-Ion Battery Supply ChainGW2020203020403002001000ChinaUnited StatesAfricaIndiaEuropean UnionRest of worldDollars per kWh(2017)Battery

43、 pack1 hour4 hoursNon-battery costs8 hours2020 2030 2040 7505002500Figure 1:Installed capacity4Figure 2:Projected capital cost,based on discharge time49The linear supply chain and its rapid growth is leading to unsustainable economic,environmental and social outcomes.As with most products in the mod

44、ern world,LIBs follow the linear take-make-dispose supply chain model.This model has many fundamental problems including:supply chain security and flexibility,embodied carbon and energy,water consumption and contamination,labour conditions and,of course,waste.LIBs contain lithium,other metals and ra

45、re earth materials that are mostly mined from the earth in an energy-intensive manner and cause other significant environmental externalities.When LIBs end up in landfill,there are both environmental impacts and significant losses of material value.They also create a potential ignition source,common

46、ly leading to difficult-to-manage fires,causing increasing concern across the landfill management industry.The circular economy concept provides principles,tools and business models for redirecting this lost value and creating better economic,environmental and social outcomes.The circular economy is

47、 an opportunity for existing players in the LIB industry to create more value,and for new services,jobs and programs to become additional sources of value.This also brings co-benefits to local communities and related sectors.According to the Ellen MacArthur Foundation(EMF),the main principles of the

48、 circular economy are:Keeping products and materials in use at their highest possible value Regenerating natural systems Designing out waste and pollution.5Designing business models around these principles leads to the creation of CBMs which accelerate the transition towards a circular economy.CBMs

49、can be used to reshape existing businesses or inspire new ones.However,implementing circular models requires a shift in mindset by industry and investors.The investors interviewed for Arups First Steps Towards a Circular Built Environment6 report,identified twice as many barriers as opportunities to

50、 the transition to a circular built environment.Greater awareness,research and action in applying CBMs can help industry understand the pathways to unlock the opportunities and solutions to overcome these barriers.Therefore,more leadership is required to demonstrate and communicate the benefits of t

51、he circular economy and how CBMs work.Arups report,Circular Photovoltaics7 aimed to stimulate and encourage such leadership in the context of the Australian solar PV industry.Circular Batteries aims to do the same for the global LIB industry by:Analysing the current state of the industry Outlining h

52、ow CBMs could,or already do,apply to the lifecycle of a LIB Recommending ways forward for industry stakeholders.Through research,interviews and application of circular ideas,this report demonstrates the significant opportunities for value capture that are ready to be explored by industry participant

53、s.Investors identified twice as many barriers as opportunities to the transition to a circular built environment.5 Ellen Macarthur Foundation,2017,What is the circular economy6 Arup,2018,First steps towards a circular built environment7 Arup,2019,Circular business models for australia solar photovol

54、taics1011 Tomazl/istockLithium-ion batteries are a key enabler for global decarbonisation.Lithium-ion batteries12LIB technologyLIBs are a type of secondary battery,meaning they can be recharged.Within the battery cell/s,lithium ions move from a negative electrode to a positive electrode during use,a

55、nd then back when charging.LIBs use an intercalated lithium compound as one of the electrode materials,rather than traditional metallic lithium used in non-rechargeable(primary)batteries.They are an attractive energy storage solution because of their high energy density.However,the chemistry,perform

56、ance,cost and safety characteristics vary across LIB types.Common chemistries,their characteristics and usesTypeRelative characteristicsExample use casesLithium-Cobalt Oxide BatteryHigher energy density Greater safety risks,especially when damagedLimited powerShorter lifespanPortable electronic devi

57、cesLithium-Iron Phosphate BatteryLower energy densityLonger lifeReduced safety riskEnergy storageLithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt Oxide BatteryLower energy densityLonger lifeHigher capacityReduced safety riskEVsElectric bikesMedical devicesLithium-Manganese Oxide BatteryGood thermal stability/reduced

58、 safety riskHigher powerShorter lifeLower capacityPower toolsMedical devicesElectric bikesLithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum OxideLower energy densityLonger lifeReduced safety riskLess thermally stableEVsMedical devicesLithium-Titanate BatteryFast recharge timeLower energy densityLonger lifeReduced safe

59、ty riskEVsEnergy storageLCOLiFePONMCLMONCALTOSeparatorAnode plateMetal caseSeparatorCathode plateFigure 3:Prismatic Li-ion cell13NMC batteries are anticipated to be the most popular battery chemistry,followed by LiFePO.The forecast share of these chemistries to 2026 is shown in Figure 4.8Considering

60、 the global demand for LIBs from EVs,alongside the scarcity and cost of cobalt,NMCs with chemistries with relatively higher nickel content and relatively lower cobalt content are anticipated to be the most popular.While forecasts can be useful for future planning and investment decisions,especially

61、regarding end-of-life(EOL)preparation,there is a high degree of uncertainty around which LIB chemistries will be dominant moving forward.This uncertainty is largely due to the intense levels of competition and research and development (R&D)occurring.Chemistries are being adapted and new technologies

62、 introduced regularly in academia and industry.This poses a challenge to the development of any business models around LIBs,circular or otherwise.8 Cairn ERA via Jaffe,2017,Vulnerable Links in the Lithium-Ion Battery Supply Chain 9 BMO Capital Markets,2018,The Lithium-Ion Battery and the EV Market.N

63、ote on naming convention:NMC 622 indicates a ratio of 6 to 2 to 2 for nickel,manganese and cobalt.Figure 4:Global Battery Industry Growth Forecasts by Electrode Chemistry,in MWh,2017-2026.8Figure 5:EV Battery Chemistry Market Share BMO Capital Markets.9 100%90%80%70%60%50%40%30%20%10%0%20152020E2025

64、ENMC 811NMC 622NMC 111LMOLFPNCA800,000700,000600,000500,000400,000300,000200,000100,00002017201820192020202120222023202420252026LCONCANMCLMOLFPLTOOther14Figure 6:Global battery demand by application and region.12 10 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance;McKinsey analysis11 Markets and Markets

65、,2019,Lithium Ion Battery Market by Type12 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance;McKinsey analysis13 BBC News:Meet the electric pioneers 14 International Energy Agency,2019,Global EV Outlook 201915 Hornsdale Power Reserve:Strengthening the South Australian Electricity GridLIB marketCompared t

66、o 2018,global battery demand is expected to increase 14-fold by 2030.10 LIBs are expected to fill much of this demand.Historically,LIBs have been used almost exclusively in consumer electronics.Now,EVs,especially personal vehicles,are emerging as the largest application category.Electric buses are b

67、ecoming more common,and prototypes of electric ferries and even planes are emerging.13 In 2030,the IEA expects global EV sales to reach between 23 million and 43 million.The ultimate numbers depend on policies enacted by governments between now and then.14 It is clear,however,that the scale will be

68、far beyond current demand.Use at the utility scale is also anticipated to grow,with energy storage systems,data centres and telecoms utilising large batteries.At the time of writing,the largest operational utility battery is the 250 MW Gateway project by LS Power in San Diego.This expanded battery w

69、ill provide dispatchable power to support renewables in the region,ancillary services and virtual inertia to the grid.15The global LIB market size is estimated to hit nearlyUS$92.2bn by 2024,11 as a result of the increasing demand from EVs.2,623282 1,122 China 443 EU 357 USA 702 RoW1424462202020302,

70、6232,333Electric mobilityEnergy storageConsumer electronics28220202030229102216943Global battery demand by application GWh in 2030,base case Global battery demand by region GWh in 2030,base case 15A linear value chainThe current lifecycle of LIBs generally follows the traditional take-make-dispose m

71、odel.There are many negative externalities of this linear supply chain that create serious challenges for the industry moving forward.DesignMaterialsprocessingSelectionRaw material sourcingVirgin materials,EnergyGHG emissions75%of lithium supply comes from Australia and Chile16 16 European Commissio

72、n,2019,Report on the Implementation of the Strategic Action Plan on Batteries 17 Future Smart Strategies,2018,A Lithium Industry in Australia18 International Energy Agency,2020,Global EV Outlook 2020China is the number one producer of processed materials,producing 44%,71%and 51%of cathode,anode and

73、electrolyte materials,respectively.16Partnerships and joint ventures are common between LIB and EV manufacturers.16Components manufactureInstallationUseDisposalLogisticsLogisticsEnergyGHG emissionsEnergyGHG emissionsEnergyGHG emissionsEnergyGHG emissionsEnergyGHG emissionsWasteProduct manufactureLog

74、isticsEnergyGHG emissionsEnergyGHG emissionsEnergyGHG emissions50%of global EV battery manufacturing is in China18US$11.7bnMining concentrate17LITHIUM VALUE CHAIN 2025 FORECASTUS$424bnCell production17LITHIUM VALUE CHAIN 2025 FORECASTUS$1.3tnModule production17LITHIUM VALUE CHAIN 2025 FORECASTFor LI

75、Bs in EVs,most GHG emissions occur during the use phase due to the large share of non-renewable energy sources used in global energy grids.17There are many negative externalities of this linear supply chain that create serious challenges for the industry moving forward.ChallengesSecure supplies Embo

76、died energy and carbonWater consumption and contaminationLabour conditions and community impactsLost value 18There are significant lithium deposits around the world,but limited distribution of lithium wealth.Lithium is extracted from lithium minerals found in igneous rocks composed of large crystals

77、(spodumene or hard rock)or in water with a high concentration of lithium carbonate(brine).Lithium products derived from brine operations can be used directly in end-markets but require a long production time,while hard rock lithium concentrates must be further processed before they can be used in va

78、lue-added applications like LIBs.Today,the worlds lithium production is split evenly between hard rock and brine,and can be found in many locations.Despite this,the distribution of lithium wealth the economic gains from lithium production is limited to fewer countries.In 2016 this was Chile(52%),Chi

79、na(22%),Argentina(14%)and Australia(10%).19 China is a huge importer of lithium resources as it is the main processor and manufacturer of lithium products.It accounts for an estimated 89%of the worlds lithium hydroxide,20 which is required for advanced LIBs with a higher nickel fraction.Chile,Argent

80、ina and Bolivia are thought to have similar levels of lithium resources,though Chile has had a head-start in exporting these resources,predominantly to Asia.While Australia is thought to have fewer lithium resources,it is leading in extraction and export of mineral concentrates.Secure suppliesLithiu

81、m Mining production:Thousand metric tons Carbonate exportsLiLithium Resources:Millions metric tons LiAUSTRALIAZIMBABWECONGOMALIPORTUGALSPAINCZECHIASERBIACHINARUSSIAJAPANSOUTH KOREA40Li5Li0.8Li0.5Li1Li0.2Li0.8Li1Li1Li0.4Li0.8Li0.1Li6.8Li7LiCHILEARGENTINABOLIVIABRAZILUNITED STATESMEXICOCANADA14.2Li8.4

82、Li5.7Li1.9Li9Li9.8Li6.8Li0.2Li0.2Li0.2Li19 Swain,2017,Recovery and Recycling of Lithium:A review20 Australia Unlimited,2018,The lithium Ion Battery Value Chain-New Economy Opportunities for Australia21 Trading Economics22 National GeographicFigure 7:Lithium trading21 Figure 8:Lithium deposits22 1916

83、0000201820192020140000120000100000800006000049000Lithium Carbonate(CNY/Tonne)Global supply and demand of lithium is growing,however demand is outpacing supply.In 2017,as demand increased,global lithium prices increased to the years end.This high price and expectations of future demand coupled with t

84、he low capital costs of mine operation led to many new entrants to the market.23 This increased supply has been a factor for the downward trend in price since.While demand for lithium for non-battery applications such as production of glass,ceramics,greases,lubricants,metal alloys,air conditioning a

85、nd others will continue to grow steadily,the demand for lithium in EV batteries alone will outstrip current production levels.And as the demand begins to outpace supply,prices are expected to increase again.The IEA has developed two scenarios for EV uptake that depend on a variety of factors,includi

86、ng policy decisions globally and the projected demand for lithium in 2030(see Figure 9).The orange bar was demand in 2019 with the blue diamond representing current supply.Due to the disparity between current supply and future demand,lithium supply security has become a top priority for technology c

87、ompanies.Strategic alliances and joint ventures among technology companies and exploration companies continue to be established to ensure a reliable,diversified supply of lithium for battery suppliers and vehicle manufacturers.Retaining material within the circular economy offers an alternative to t

88、he linear supply chain.Material supply risk goes well beyond lithium.The choices that are made around cathode battery chemistry affect the demand of metals globally.Issues are arising around scarcity,extraction difficulty and intensity,and transportation.Some materials,like aluminium,plastics and co

89、pper,already have large industrial bases and as such have more secure supply chains.Others have more uncertain outlooks.The European Union(EU)has listed magnesium and cobalt as critical raw materials,meaning they are of high economic importance and high supply risk.25 Looking at EVs alone,challenges

90、 also exist around production volumes of cobalt,manganese and nickel.Demand will outpace supply by 2030,with the difference most dramatic for manganese.STEPS=Stated Policies Scenario(covers adoption of policies already in place or announced)SDS=Sustainable Development Scenario(a more ambitious polic

91、y context)Figure 9:Annual demand for lithium 1,cobalt 2,manganese 3 and nickel class 1 4 batteries from EV deployment,2019-30.2423 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance,2019,A Vision for a Sustainable Battery24 Value Chain in 2030 International Energy Agency,2020,Global EV Outlook 2020 25 Eur

92、opean Commission-Critical raw materials5002500Metal demand(kilotonnes)4502000400150035010003005002502019201920302030STEPSSTEPSLiMnLiMnLiMnCoNiCoNiCoNiSDSSDS2001501005000Heavy DutyLight DutyHistoricalVariable for chemistryCurrent supply1122233344412026 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance,201

93、9,A Vision for a Sustainable Battery Value Chain in 203027 International Energy Agency,2019,Global EV Outlook 2019 Cobalt is classed as a critical metal,which is reflected through its high price.Approximately 70%of cobalt production comes from one country the Democratic Republic of Congo.26 In the l

94、ong term,this is not a significant concern for raw material supply,as it is slowly being phased out of batteries.Nickel is currently used in many applications and it is anticipated that the demand for nickel in EVs will put pressure on the market,impacting other applications such as stainless-steel

95、production.26 As other materials are incorporated in changing chemistries,demand for those materials such as graphite may rapidly increase too.While production may be able to ramp up to meet demand,there are challenges in rapidly scaling material use.Imbalance in supply and demand is expected along

96、the way and will lead to price spikes,high levels of uncertainty and geographic concentration of production.27 Recycling has potential to shift some of these dynamics in the long-term.Alternative circular solutions are required in the short term.The IEA has also identified challenges beyond the sudd

97、en ramp-up of production.Environmental impacts such as local pollution,CO2 emissions in logistics,and impacts to land,water resources and ecosystems and social issues such as child labour and impacts to the wellbeing of local communities.2721 Xeni4ka/istockEnergy used for extraction,processing,manuf

98、acturing and delivery of LIBs is known as embodied energy.Similarly,embodied carbon is the carbon emissions(or equivalent)from these upstream processes during material and product development and transportation.This is the equivalent to driving a small internal combustion engine vehicle for 1,000km

99、per kWh of battery storage.29 Based on current emissions during production,the owner of a Tesla Model 3 Standard Range with a 50 kWh battery30 would need to drive for 50,000km using 100%renewable electricity to offset the embodied emissions of the battery alone.Cathode material selectionCathode mate

100、rials generally require large quantities of energy to manufacture.Cathodes with nickel and cobalt are particularly harmful with the highest potential for environmental impacts,including:global warming,resource depletion,ecological toxicity and human health impacts.31 These negative impacts could be

101、minimised through the use of alternative chemistries.Emissions from electricity use should be targeted through increased use of renewables.One study of LFP,NMC and LMO batteries found that around 40%of total embodied emissions were associated with electricity use.If countries were to transition to c

102、lean energy mixes,this 40%contribution could be gradually eliminated.32 Embodied energy and carbon150-200kg CO2-eq/kWh The total embodied carbon emissions of LIBs2828 IVL Swedish Environmental Research Institute,2017,The Life Cycle Energy Consumption and Greenhouse Gas Emissions from Lithium-Ion Bat

103、teries29 National Greenhouse Accounts Factor 201930 Electric Vehicle Data Base31 United States Environmental Protection Agency,2013,Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology:Lithium-ion batteries for Electric Vehicles32 Yang,Zhou,Zhang,2017,GHG Emissions from the Production of Lit

104、hium-Ion Batteries for Electric Vehicles in China22 Cavan images/istockMethods to extract lithium are water-intensive and can be environmentally degrading.For brine deposits,where open evaporation occurs to leave the lithium product,significant volumes of water are lost.34 These deposits are often i

105、n already dry areas,such as the salt flats of Chile and Bolivia.There is also the possibility of release of lithium into the environment leading to contamination and human health issues.In Tibet,a chemical leak from a lithium mine in 2016 reportedly caused water pollution in the Liqi river,causing d

106、amage to the local ecosystem including aquatic life.35 Water consumption and contamination33 Agusdinata,Liu,Eakin,Romero,2018,Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction:Towards a research agenda34 Egbue,2012,Assessment of Social Impacts of Lithium for Electric Vehicle Batteries35 Wire

107、d:Lithium batteries environment impact“The environmental and occupational health and safety risks related to lithium in brines are comparatively higher than for other sources of lithium,but the potential health effects are currently poorly understood.”3323In the pursuit for resource efficiency and v

108、alue capture,a focus on people and communities should remain front of mind.The demand for lithium resources has the potential to provide significant social and economic benefits,particularly in countries like Bolivia.However,concerns that water use is diverted from agricultural needs have been cited

109、 in the lithium triangle(Argentina,Bolivia and Chile),37 as have concerns over access to resources for indigenous populations as well as the general populations.38 In Chile,public campaigns have included Litio para Chile(Lithium for Chile)and Atacama es de todos (Atacama belongs to everyone),calling

110、 for more equitable distribution of resources.39 Social lifecycle assessments have highlighted the lack of data around these issues.40 This is an area where more research is required,with a recent review of lithium mineral extraction identifying a limited focus on social and environmental impacts of

111、 the extraction.41 Issues surrounding cobalt supply from the Democratic Republic of Congo have received more attention.A lack of safety equipment and legal protections,alongside child labour,chronic illness and respiratory diseases were documented by Amnesty International,with a report claiming that

112、 companies are not carrying out human rights due diligence with international standards.42 Given the toxicity of metals like cobalt and nickel,high standards are required to minimize the cancer and non-cancer toxicity impact potential.43 Initiatives like the Cobalt Industry Responsible Assessment Fr

113、amework44 are attempting to provide mechanisms for companies to improve visibility,reporting and outcomes in the supply chain.Of course,social outcomes can vary from supplier to supplier and area to area,which is why social lifecycle assessments need to be tailored to local contexts.Labour condition

114、s and community impacts36 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance,2019,A Vision for a Sustainable Battery Value Chain in 203037 National Geographic:Lthium is fueling-technology today at what cost38 Business&Human Rghts Resource Centre:The downside of electromobility39 pv magazine:Is fair lithiu

115、m from Chile possible40 Egbue,2012,Assessment of Social Impacts of Lithium for Electric Vehicle Batteries41 Agusdinata,Liu,Eakin,Romero,2018,Socio-environmental impacts of lithium mineral extraction:Towards a research agenda42 Amnesty International,2017,Time to Recharge:Corporate Action and Inaction

116、 to Tackle Abuses in the Cobalt Supply Chain43 United States Environmental Protection Agency,2013,Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology:Lithium-ion batteries for Electric Vehicles44 Cobalt Institute:The cobalt industry responsible assessment framework2 million The estimated nu

117、mber of people employed in the battery value chainof employees work in developing countries3680%24The revenue opportunities of the LIB value chain are expected to be US$300 billion annually by 203045 and increasing beyond then.However,to create this opportunity,US$440 billion of investment is requir

118、ed before 2030.If this investment is not made,then it is likely that much of this valuable material will be lost and the negative externalities realised by the global community.In China,it is estimated that less than 10%of LIBs from consumer electronics were recycled in 2017.46 The rest went to land

119、fill or remained idle.Globally,around 50%of LIBs are currently recycled.47 The other 50%are often stored and/or disposed but not recycled or reused.Following the principles of the waste hierarchy,while reuse is to be promoted above recycling,stored and disposed batteries represent lost opportunities

120、 to capture valuable materials.Efforts are underway globally to recycle material from EOL LIBs,driven by the high relative content and price of cobalt.These measures focus on Lithium-Cobalt Oxide Battery cathode chemistries which have a higher cobalt content.However,the supply stream for these LIBs

121、is still small,making it difficult to achieve economic returns.The LIB waste issue goes well beyond lost value.Stockpiling,burning and landfilling are not acceptable options for reaching environmental sustainability.Lost value2017201820252030of LIBs from consumer electronics were recycled in Chinato

122、nnes of LIBs reached the end of their life47tonnes of LIBs are expected to reach the end of their life47expected revenue opportunities of LIB value chain10%180,000700,000US$300bn45 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance,2019,A Vision for a Sustainable Battery Value Chain in 203046 Gu,Guo,Yao,S

123、ummers,Widijatmoko,Hall,2017,An Investigation of the Current Status of Recycling Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries from Consumer Electronics in China47 http:/www3.weforum.org/docs/GBA_EOL_baseline_Circular_Energy_Storage.pdf25The circular economy presents an opportunity for government,businesses and consu

124、mers to rethink the traditional take-make-dispose model of consumption and develop new business models that produce better social,environmental and economic outcomes.Circular economy26BiologicalTechnicaltakemakeusedisposeLinear economyCircular economy48Living systemsEnergy from renewable resourcesTh

125、e circular economy represents a shift to an economy where looping back both technical components and biological nutrients into the system replaces typical linear processesLooking beyond the current take-make-dispose extractive industrial model,a circular economy aims to redefine growth,focusing on p

126、ositive society-wide benefits.It entails gradually decoupling economic activity from the consumption of finite resources and designing waste out of the system.Underpinned by a transition to renewable energy sources,the circular model builds economic,natural,and social capital.In a circular economy,e

127、conomic activity builds and rebuilds overall system health.The concept recognizes the importance of the economy working effectively at all scales for large and small businesses,for organisations and individuals,globally and locally.Transitioning to a circular economy amounts to more than adjustments

128、 aimed at reducing the negative impacts of the linear economy.It represents a systemic shift that builds long-term resilience,generates business and economic opportunities,and provides environmental and societal benefits.It is based on three principles:Keep products and materials in use at their hig

129、hest possible value Regenerate natural systems Design out waste and pollution.48 Arup/EMF Report,adapted from Ellen MacArthur Foundation 201527The circular economy is on the global agenda A potential boost of US$4.5 trillion to the global economy by 2030 has been estimated by the EMF.151 organisatio

130、ns internationally are members,partners or alumni of the Circular Economy 100 an EMF program that facilitates collaboration,innovation and understanding between members looking to develop CBMs.49 In 2018,China and the EU signed a Memorandum of Understanding on Circular Economy Cooperation.50 The EMF

131、 estimates there is potential for CNY 70 trillion savings for businesses and households by 2040.5149 Ellen MacArthur Foundation,2018,Member Groups50 http:/ec.europa.eu/environment/circular-economy/pdf/circular_economy_MoU_EN.pdf 51 Ellen MacArthur Foundation:China ReportThe economic potential for in

132、dividual countries is significant.For example,building on analysis from the CSIRO in Australia,a circular economy approach to LIBs could save around A$3 billion of materials from leaving the Australian economy every year.Re-circulating batteries and materials back into the economy will not only avoi

133、d losing this value,it will also create additional economic benefits,including:Reuse,recovery and recycling industry development Jobs creation and skills development in these industries Flow on effects in primary industry development,including opportunities for innovation and greater efficiency Avoi

134、ding negative externalities of mining resources.28 Elva Etienne/MomentAccording to the foundational work by the EMF,the circular economy distinguishes between technical and biological cycles.Consumption happens only in biological cycles,where food and biologically-based materials(such as cotton or w

135、ood)are designed to feed back into the system through processes like composting and anaerobic digestion.These cycles regenerate living systems,such as soil,which provide renewable resources for the economy.Technical cycles encompass non-biological materials.In a circular economy approach,the aim is

136、to recover and restore products,components,and materials through strategies like reuse,repair,remanufacture or(in the last resort)recycling.Mining/materials manufacturingFarming/collectionBiological materialsTechnical materialsRecycleRefurbish/remanufactureReuse/redistributeMaintainLeakage-to be min

137、imisedCollectionCollectionUSERUSERMaterials/parts manufacturerProduct manufacturerRetail/service providerCascadesAnaerobicdigestion/compostingExtraction ofbiochemicalfeedstockEnergy recoveryLandfillBiogasBiochemical feedstockSoilrestorationCircular economy concept52Technical and biological cycles295

138、2 www.ellenmacarthurfoundation.org/circular-economy/concept/infographic 53 www.circularity-gap.world/2020The world is currently 8.6%circular,according to the Circularity Gap.53 DesignLogisticsProduce and Process DesignMaterialsprocessingComponentsmanufacturingRemanufactureProduct manufactureRefurbis

139、h and MaintainProduct-as-a-serviceRecoveryRecaptured materials suppliesRecycling facilityRecovery ProviderReverse logisticsCircularmaterialsCircular SuppliesLogisticsLogisticsImprove and maintainUseMaintainance/improvementSharing PlatformsSharingInstallationSelectionSupport LifecycleTracking Facilit

140、ySell and Buy BackResaleCircular lithium lifecycle 23%reduction of battery costs with production emissions halved to around 100Mt by 2030 US$70.4bnanticipated market for mobility-as-a-service by 2030US$22bnadditional value created if 50%of EVs became vehicle-to-grid compatible 31%increase in profit

141、if remanufacturing is integrated in LIB supply chain networksUS$2bnsaved if 61%of EV batteries are reused by 20306.5%of the 2030 demand represents spent batteries30 PhotocreditBusiness models for the circular economy Several methods of naming and defining CBMs exist.This report explores how seven fo

142、cus CBMs could apply to the LIB industry globally,covering the whole lifecycle.The seven models are:CBM1 Product and process design Rethinking the design to improve the maintenance,repair,upgrade,refurbishment and/or manufacturing process.CBM2 Circular supplies Replacing virgin materials with those

143、sourced from within the circular economy.CBM3 Sharing platforms Enabling or offering shared use,access or ownership so more people can benefit from the asset.CBM4 Product-as-a-service(PaaS)Delivering performance rather than products,where the ownership is retained by the service provider.CBM5 Lifeti

144、me extension Extending the service life of products,through engineering solutions or in new applications.CBM6 Refurbish and maintain Repairing and refurbishing part or whole of the asset so it can be returned to operations or sold at the typical EOL.CBM7 Recycling Transforming waste into raw materia

145、ls to return to the circular supply chain.54 Carra and Magdani,2017,Circular Business Models for the Built EnvironmentWhile there are distinct models,the CBMs do not tend to function individually.Rather they co-exist,co-operate and co-evolve to create a circular ecosystem.Business models that are ba

146、sed on the circular economy unlock higher value across the whole lifecycle by enabling:Greater control of resource streams Innovation through the supply chain Enhanced collaboration within the supply chain Creation of services that capture value.54Importantly,these benefits are maximised and more li

147、kely to be simultaneously achieved when all elements of a business model are circular.For example,having a model that focuses only on recycling is theoretically not as economically sustainable as one that focuses on a mixture of models,such as sustainable material development,sharing and reusing pla

148、tforms,and recycling.It is not just about dealing with waste,but also reducing total demand and increasing overall efficiency and impact.31Designing a product that makes recycling or disassembly for refurbishment and reuse simpler,and/or creates the opportunity for a new product that can be provided

149、 from the material resource contained in the original product.By adopting some key principles in design,these impacts could be optimised for LIBs.Key strategies include:Standardising design both within a design organisation and between organisations Designing for repair,modularity,adaptability and d

150、isassembly Designing out carbon from the production process.Currently,there is a clear lack of standardisation of battery modules.EVs can contain cylindrical,prismatic or pouch cells,with different welding techniques,different types of joints,and in either series or parallel.Cells are not designed t

151、o be tested and characterised externally.Such testing requires a protocol that is time and cost efficient.Politecnico di Milano is one research institution trying to address the lack of standardisation of battery modules.55 Standardised measures relevant to circular design principles could include:S

152、tandard classification systems such as standardised colour coding of LIBs to communicate type or relevant recycling process Standard processes,like efficient removal from EVs.More broadly,any standardisations that increase the LIBs ability to be repaired in a routine manner and to be recycled or reu

153、sed without new R&D occurring,should be adopted.Government has a role in facilitating collaboration for standardisation.Designing for reuse and disassembly should be a standard design process for LIBs.Designing for reuse may consider the modularity and replaceability of battery components that have

154、shorter lifespans than other components.Designing for disassembly can also allow individual units,like controllers or cells,to be reused in other applications should the whole LIB unit reach its EOL.Researchers have identified many challenges in disassembling LIBs.One study examined an Audi Q5 Hybri

155、d System and identified challenges with different screw types and orientations,which required multiple tools and tool changes and difficulty accessing cables and joints.It was determined that partial automation would currently be feasible,however full automation would be complex and expensive.56CBM1

156、 Product and process design The design of a product or process involves a significant number of decisions,each with implications for the economic,social and environmental impacts of the product.All CBMs can be influenced by design.This involves rethinking design to improve the maintenance,repair,upg

157、rade,refurbishment and/or manufacturing process.Research from Yale University indicated that the most effective method to reduce contribution to climate change from LIBs would be to produce the battery cells with electricity from a less carbon intensive energy mix.573255 Interview Politecnico di Mil

158、ano.56 Wegener,Andrew,Raatz,Drder,Herrman,2014,Disassembly of Electric Vehicle Batteries Using the Example of the Audi Q5 Hybrid System57 Ellingsen,Majeau-Bettez,Singh,Srivastava,Valen,Strmman,2013,Life Cycle Assessment of a Lithium-Ion Battery Vehicle PackGeneral design principles to improve disass

159、embly include:Prioritising mechanical connections rather than chemical ones.For example,welding should be avoided.In general,reducing the number of connections would assist Minimising the number and complexity of steps to remove and dismantle the LIB Using generic tools for disassembly and minimisin

160、g the number of tools and tool changes required.Generic connectors can be replaced with ease and are durable.One study recommends:Replacing connections with snap-fitting mechanisms Using discrete components,not deformed:bundler,spring,screw,bolt,nut,lock washer59Designing out emissions is key to red

161、ucing the impacts of battery production.Analysis from the World Economic Forum(WEF)examining the 2018 and(projected)2030 carbon footprint of LIBs showed:The significant CO2 footprint of the middle of the supply chain The active materials and other components,and cell production The influence China h

162、as on these emissions,even more so in the short-term.Promisingly,the WEF estimates in its projections that production emissions from LIBs in 2030 could easily be halved to around 100 Mt at negative cost,and therefore reduce battery costs by 23%while reducing associated emissions.This is only a base

163、case and so there is opportunity to design out more carbon.Important design-related levers to achieve this include:Improving process efficiency.This covers a broad range of improvements relevant to general manufacturing processes and those specific to LIBs,such as using a solvent-less process in bat

164、tery manufacturing to reduce energy requirements60 Utilising renewables.This covers electrifying production processes and vehicles using renewable energy sources Improving LIB chemistry.This covers improvements in materials efficiency and energy density(for example by shifting chemistries from NMC62

165、2 to NMC811).This abatement is particularly attractive from an economic perspective.Figure 10:Battery production with significant C02 footprint,mainly driven by active materials and other components as well as production in China.58 ChinaEUUSRest of WorldRaw material miningRaw material refiningActiv

166、e materials and other componentsCell productionPack productionRecycling6%12%35%34%Percentage of total Green House Gas emissions11%1%2030-182 Mt CO2e 2018 24 Mt CO2e x83358 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance,McKinsey analysis59 Peir,Ardente,Mathieux,2017,Design for Disassembly Criteria in E

167、U Product Policies for a More Circular Economy 60 United States Environmental Protection Agency,2013,Application of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology:Lithium-ion batteries for Electric VehiclesDesign opportunities include:34 Petmal/istockModularity.Currently,when the number of cells in a

168、 battery system is increased,the number of control systems increases accordingly.If one control system could be adapted to control a number of batteries,this would lead to more efficient use of materials.Designing for disassembly through prioritising mechanical connections and sharing documentation

169、on how to disassemble productsSynergy in component life span.The lifespan of the control system (15 years)tends to be shorter than that of the batteries(20 years).Increasing this could prevent premature EOL.Reducing use of undesirable materials.Research and design could reduce cobalt and nickel to i

170、ncrease resilience of supply chain and reduce environmental impacts.Reducing embodied emissions by designing LIBs and processes to reduce embodied carbon,embodied energy and the use of hazardous and non-recyclable materials.Reducing share of metals by mass to reduce environmental and health impacts.

171、61Increasing standardisation by developing and utilising standardised hierarchies,classification systems and processes.Incorporating recovered materials by utilising recovered materials.(see CBM 2:Circular Supplies and CBM 7:Recycling Facility)61 United States Environmental Protection Agency,2013,Ap

172、plication of Life-Cycle Assessment to Nanoscale Technology:Lithium-ion batteries for Electric VehiclesThe European Commission is currently leading in this space.The latest EU Circular Economy Action Plan(March 2020)identifies electronics and ICT,and batteries and vehicles as key project value chains

173、.It sets actions related to legislative and non-legislative measures and aims to lead global efforts on circular economy.The upcoming Ecodesign Working Plan will be critical to continuing developments in Europe and further afield.63 CASE STUDY The EUFigure 11:Relative costs of CO2 mitigation(vs.base

174、 case).62 Scope 1Scope 23562 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance,McKinsey and SYSTEMIQ analysis 63 European Commission:A new Circular Economy Action PlanThe responsibility for circular design sits largely with China,the EU and the US,as by 2030,they will be designing and producing the most

175、LIBs.As such,they should lead efforts to collaborate on circular design.Other countries can encourage them to establish goals,design priorities and collaborations required for better product and process design by opting for products from manufacturers/countries which adopt circular design principles

176、.40045%of mitigations create economic value of US$56-80 billionRenewables(USA)Renewables(China)Renewables(Rest of World)Renewables(EU)Solid state batteriesRepurposeShared mobilityvehicle-to-grid(V1G/V2G)Lithium-ion battery improvementRecycle,repair/refurbishProcess efficiencyProcess decarbonisation1

177、82 Mt CO2 Total lifecycle emissions83 MtLifecycle CO2 mitigated (vs base case)Mt CO2US$/t CO2Abatement is not economicAbatement is economic2000-200-400-600-800-1,000-1,200-1,400-1,600-9,00036Pace and competitiveness of R&D makes circular design a low priorityLack of motivation from manufacturers as

178、many benefits are realised later in the supply chainLack of interaction between designers and recyclers Lack of design standardisation between designersHigh and urgent demand for batteriesLower market acceptance or understanding of reused or recycled productsLegislated incentives to encourage manufa

179、cturers to close the loop on their supply chain and prepare for battery EOL.This includes procurement policies to encourage recycled contentTarget percentages for recycled and non-hazardous materialsDesign for disassembly principles which will provide guidance on how to design for a more efficient d

180、econstruction phase that can constantly evolveLabelling or materials passports that track and disclose material origin and composition,recyclability and repair process.Global databases on LIB contents,recycling and repair instructions would accompany this tracking Standardising design by industry an

181、d government to enable more efficient recycling and to allow the waste industry to plan for future waste streamsThe European Commissions new Circular Economy Action Plan64 will play an important leadership role Addressing the issue upfront makes all later lifecycle stagesReduction in material,financ

182、e,energy and emissionsChanges to design can be implemented immediately64 European Commission,2020,EUR-Lex-Access to European Union Law BenefitsBarriersFuture enablersCBM2 Circular supplies Virgin aluminium and raw electrode materials are key drivers of greenhouse gas production in the materials sour

183、cing phase,with aluminium representing up to a quarter of the greenhouse gas emissions from battery manufacturing.By swapping to recycled aluminium,the energy inputs to produce aluminium can be reduced by around 95%.65This is important beyond carbon footprint reduction.A circular economy will look t

184、o chemistries to provide the basis of innovative products made from renewable or recovered feedstocks that are designed to be reused,recycled,or the feedstock renewed through natural processes.There are several circular supply chains to replace those linear ones.Materials from reserve logistics and

185、recovery schemes along with recycled,recyclable,upcycled and non-hazardous substances should be selected where possible.Partnerships,R&D,and pilot programs will enable trust and economies of scale to be achieved for the materials market.There are several supporting activities that could help facilit

186、ate the move towards circular supplies.These include:Reverse logistics Suppliers ownership models for production of components Product reclaim schemes Mandatory reporting initiatives.Companies are emerging that capture lithium from existing applications,such as Lithium Australia,which is producing h

187、igh-performance battery cells made using lithium recovered from mine waste and spent LIBs.66 See CBM 7:Recycling Facility for more information on capturing materials.The social outcomes of supply chains need to be considered alongside the environmental ones too.Product design should consider the sec

188、urity and ethics of supply chains.Following guidance,such as the Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Mineral Supply Chains67 from the OECD,should be mandated.Government has a strong role to play in influencing procurement through:Guidelines for public and private procurement to demonstrate best p

189、ractice Targets for circular supplies to enhance market confidence and growth Legislated restrictions and targets to increase enforceability Early procurement of new circular materials to demonstrate viability.This involves replacing virgin materials with those sourced from within the circular econo

190、my.It is important that designers rethink their material procurement to include reverse logistics,supply ownership models,and reclaim and recycling schemes.3765 International Energy Agency,2020,Global EV Outlook 202066 Lithium Australia,2020,LIT converts waste into high performance LIB cathodes67 OE

191、CD Due Diligence Guidance for Responsible Supply ChainsAlternative electrode chemistries should be selected with care.There is still significant uncertainty around which cathode chemistries will dominate in the coming decades.This uncertainty presents an opportunity to lock in chemistries that optim

192、ise social,environmental and economic outcomes.There are many promising candidates under research.An example is batteries that use conversion materials such as copper or iron fluorides and silicon.These are more common materials with secure supply chains,that demonstrate energy storage can be increa

193、sed significantly (see Figure 12).68While it is unclear which chemistries will prevail,ensuring that materials are efficient,scalable and have low environmental impact should be a priority of R&D activities.The sooner these new generation materials are adopted by industry,the sooner the waste indust

194、ry can gain certainty of battery composition and invest in appropriate recycling technologies.Figure 12:Batteries that use conversion electrodes can store more energy in a given unit stack volume than those using conventional electrodes.68 38Lack of transparencyIncreasing level of demand for lithium

195、,increasing pressure on productionUncertainty over future battery chemistriesLow volume of EOL lithium for recyclingUncertainty or lack of data around performance,life span and operational costsLegislated incentives to encourage manufacturers to close the loop on their supply chain.This includes pro

196、curement policies to encourage recycled contentTarget percentages for recycled and non-hazardous materialsLabelling or materials passports that track and disclose material origin and composition Standardised LIB chemistry to enable the waste industry to plan for future waste streamsSupply chain mate

197、rials and visibility Reduction in materials,finance,energy and emissions68 Turchenjuk,Bondarev,Singhal,Yushin,2018,Nature:Ten years left to redesign lithium-ion batteries05001,0001,500Energy density(watt hours per litre)2,000C Carbon(graphite)LFP Lithium iron phosphateNCA Lithium nickel cobalt alumi

198、nium oxideNCM Lithium nickel cobalt manganese oxideLMO Lithium manganese oxideFeF2-SiConversion ElectrodesConventional ElectrodesFeF3-SiCuF2-SiCeCl2-SiLFP-CNCM-CNCA-CLMO-CBenefitsBarriersFuture enablersTable 1:Vehicle-to-grid applicationsCBM3 Sharing platforms Stationary LIBs can be shared through i

199、nitiatives such as community battery projects,where community members share a larger scale battery instead of smaller individual storage units.This type of centralised battery storage can utilise resources in operation,management and maintenance more efficiently than in smaller disaggregated units.F

200、or those who own an EV,there are ways to optimise its use for the grid during idle time through vehicle-to-grid(V2G)applications.V2G applications reduce emissions and costs for consumers and energy networks,and can reduce the need for additional storage.This involves enabling or offering shared use,

201、access or ownership so more people can benefit from the product.LIBs are already enabling the transition to a low-carbon economy by supporting the renewable energy industry.Through sharing platforms,their role could be magnified by increasing the availability of existing LIBs.Globally,if 50%of EVs w

202、ere enabled to be V2G compatible through offsetting the need for additional storage,17 Mt of carbon emissions would be saved each year and US$22 billion of additional value would be created.69 V1G/V2G solutions could lower costs for electric vehicle charging infrastructure by up to 90%.70 39VG1VG2Us

203、ing batteries during idle time to support the grid and participate in power markets.Benefits:Improves the business case for EVsIncreases storage capacity and resilience of grid.Smart charging of batteries when grid demand is low,reducing peak demand in the grid.Benefits:Reduces capacity required of

204、gridUser pays lower fees for energy from grid.69 World Economic Forum:A vision for a sustainable battery value chain in 203070 IRENA,2019,Innovation Outlook:Smart Charging for Electric Vehicles Preference of consumers to have individual ownership rather than shared or no ownershipSoftware and legisl

205、ation required to enableA shift from upfront investment to ongoing payments has potential implications for operating capital and taxationPayback period is often greater,which influences the kinds of loans requiredPilot projects and investment in scaling-up these projects.Many digital and hardware-ba

206、sed platforms are emerging,and rapid scale is expected soon.Funding and investment are important for this.Both EVs and grids have to be ready Regulation that enables integration of EV storage as a energy resource within the grid Increase utilisation ratesDecrease unnecessary demand for new LIBsMaxim

207、ise the benefits of LIBsIncreased access to affordable mobilityCost savings associated with smart grid interactionsNew services increase long term revenuesThere are several other ways in which batteries can be shared.In general,these occur through sharing the technology the batteries are used to pow

208、er,rather than the batteries themselves.Car sharing,whereby users share a vehicle owned by someone else,71 is an important example.This could increase or decrease the demand for EVs.The WEF target is that 16%of all passenger cars sold in 2030 are in shared arrangements,creating 3 Mt of CO2 savings d

209、ue to reduced battery demand.While sharing models can make LIBs more accessible and increase their use,there is also the potential to increase the total amount of waste produced as more LIBs may be demanded overall.So while the transition to more sustainable forms of transport and energy storage is

210、to be encouraged,it is important that the whole value chain transitions to circular thinking.This CBM highlights the need to ensure the correct ownership structures and responsibility attributions are in place.BenefitsBarriersFuture enablers4071 Farenden,Lee-Williams(Arup),2019,The Future of Mobilit

211、y and MAAS:Governance and OrchestrationCBM4 Product-as-a-service In considering EVs,ride-sharing applications are key examples of the rise of demand-responsive transport services.MaaS models look at integrating multiple transport modes cars,buses,both public and private into one service by one trans

212、port service provider.72 It is critical that services such as these provide sustainable transport options for their users.Non-ownership business models enable a centralised business to maintain control of a vehicle,and therefore responsibility of its performance,maintenance and utilisation.This invo

213、lves delivering performance rather than products,where the ownership is retained by the service provider.There are a number of different PaaS business models that can be applied to LIBs and use LIB applications,including pay-per-service unit(that is,mobility-as-a-service or MaaS),product leasing,pro

214、duct renting or deposit and loan schemes.The owner is incentivised to seek optimised use and life,as the longer and better the asset performs,the better it is for the owner.This business is also responsible for the repair,reuse or EOL of the batteries.ride-share4172 Farenden,Lee-Williams(Arup),2019,

215、The Future of Mobility and MAAS:Governance and Orchestration Kynny/istockLeasing is another way to provide a PaaS that EV manufacturers are engaging in.Renault Group has an EV battery leasing model.It owns the largest stock of EV batteries in the world(180,000 at the time of interview).This enables

216、Renault Group to control and optimise the battery lifecycle while making EVs more affordable.LIBs for powering warehouses,or EVs for the construction industry(such as forklifts),are also becoming more readily available.Deposit and loan schemes are an extension of the idea of leasing.This would see u

217、sers pay a deposit on a battery,or battery powered product,that the user loans for a fee.When out of date,the user can then upgrade the product for a lower than outright purchase and the deposit is only lost if the battery is not eventually returned.As with sharing platforms,these business models mu

218、st overcome the emotional and status benefits of owning rather than renting.73The MaaS market is anticipated to be worth US$70.4bn by 2030.7442Lack of normative behaviours from consumers towards leasing rather than owningLow awareness of PaaS modelsA shift from upfront investment to ongoing payments

219、 has potential implications for operating capital and taxationPayback period is often greater which influences the kinds of loans requiredConsumer preference for new individual products,rather than shared or service-based productsRegulatory support for EVs and autonomous vehiclesSelection of EVs by

220、ride-share and taxi servicesGovernments and private industry developing and promoting PaaS modelsAcademia and incubators focusing on creating innovative PaaS business modelsIncreased utilisation ratesAccessibility due to low capital investment for usersCentralised responsibility for maintenance,repa

221、irs and recoveryPotential slowing in demand of EVsIncreased long term revenues from new servicesBenefitsBarriersFuture enablers73 Lewandowski,2015,Review of Designing the Business Models for Circular Economy-Towards the conceptual framework74 Markets and markets:Mobility as a service CBM5 Lifetime e

222、xtension The lifecycle assessment of LIBs shows the significant emissions during production phase.75 If the lifetime of the battery can be increased,then more benefit can be realised to offset these embedded emissions.Optimised operation and use of the battery,or battery materials,can significantly

223、reduce the need for production,which causes environmental externalities.In an EV,the power requirements for a LIB are high.During the automotive service life,LIBs must meet rapidly fluctuating demands for acceleration and deceleration that depend on the vehicles driver.Currently,EV manufacturers lik

224、e Renault state that the capacity of current EV batteries is expected to reduce to 75%capacity after 8-10 years.At this point they are no longer appropriate for use in EVs.The residual capacity after use in EVs is between 60%and 80%.76By optimising when and how the battery is charged and discharged,

225、the LIB life can be extended.A simple measure to extend the lifetime is to keep the level of charge within 30%and 80%,77 as opposed to draining the battery and fully charging it each time.However,the biggest extensions in lifetime are gained from secondary use of the LIB.There is great potential for

226、 LIBs to be shifted from high performance,compact use cases to lower performance use cases in their second life where performance per unit of weight or volume is less important.Second life applications in less extreme environments are a significant opportunity.79 In the second use the fluctuation in

227、 energy demand and charge is smaller,which helps the battery to maintain its energy storage capacity longer.Additionally,when the batteries are used in stationary applications,they can be stored more easily,optimising climate control.This involves extending the service life of the product,through en

228、gineering solutions or in new applications.The WEF estimated that if 61%of EV batteries were re-used,20 GWh of ESS would be avoided,saving 1 Mt of CO2 and US$2 billion in 2030,increasing in the long-term.While warranty is typically for 5 years(e.g.Tesla and Nissan)the residual capacity after 8 years

229、 of life is often above 80%.78.4375 Gaines 2012;Sullivan and Gaines 2012;Zackrisson et al.201076 Bobba,Mathieux,Blengini,2019,How Will Second-Use of Batteries Affect Stocks and Flows in the EU?A Model for Traction Li-Ion Batteries77#easyelectriclife Groupe Renault:What is the lifespan of an electric

230、 car battery78 E-MOB:Circular Economy strategies for end of life e-mobility batteries79 Olsson,Fallahi,Schnurr,Diener,van Loon,2018,Circular Business Models for Extended EV Battery Life“Smarter software is the future the less you fully cycle the battery,the longer you can keep it from degrading.”Tyn

231、an Coles,Soltaro 44 Photocredit DutchScenery/istockSome examples of second-life applications after use in EVs include:Utility-scale storage,which will have reduced environmental impact if combined with PV80 Chinas biggest operator of telecomms has begun to use second-life LIBs instead of lead acid b

232、atteries for back-up power81 Use in buildings residential,office or industrial applications with no space constraints.For example,the Johan Cruyff Arena in Amsterdam in The Netherlands,is a multi-purpose stadium with 590 battery packs 340 new and 250 second-life LIBs that are certified to last 10 ye

233、ars.These batteries enable them to avoid peak demand power.81 There will be significant volumes of LIBs available for second life by 2025,as demonstrated in Figure 13.Most will be in China.82Batteries may need to undergo repair or refurbishment at the end of their life,to enable alternative uses.Thi

234、s is discussed in CBM 6:Refurbish and maintain.The use of products in second,third,or more applications is called cascading use.Research has indicated that it could be preferable to follow a more open style of circularity with EV LIBs by cascading their use into alternative functions,rather than reu

235、sing LIBs in their original EV application.83However,there are remaining challenges in implementing cascading use.Testing the state-of-health(SoH)and certification of batteries is needed but can be time consuming;it is not standardised and requires availability of data on the batteries.Electrochemic

236、al Impedance Spectroscopy is a current method for testing battery performance,but it has long testing times that may not be compatible with high volumes and rapid turnover of batteries.Research at the Politecnico di Milano is attempting to address the lack of standardisation in battery modules,which

237、 would assist in developing more standard testing protocols.84 A single market for the second life of batteries would help address the challenges of logistics,85 by increasing standardisation,awareness and accessibility.Figure 13:Lithium-ion batteries available for second life by geography GWh)81Eur

238、opeUSAChinaRest of World4580 Ioakimidis,Murillo-Marrodn,Bagheri,Thomas,Genikomsakis,2019,Lifecycle Assessment of a Lithium-ion Phosphate Electric Vehicle Battery in Second Life Application Scenarios 81 Pagliaro,Meneguzzo,2019,Lithium battery reusing and recycling:A circular economy insight82 Melin,E

239、.;2018,The lithium-ion battery end-of-life market83 Richa,Babbitt,Gaustad,2017,Eco-Efficiency Analysis of a Lithium-Ion Battery Waste Hierarchy Inspired by Circular Economy84 Interview Politecnico.85 Interview Renault Group2019202020212022202320242025201805101520The Program is aiming to build the bi

240、ggest stationary energy storage system using EV batteries in Europe at 70 MW/60 MWh,86 leading the push for large-scale second-life applications.Renault Group is also developing a SoH protocol for EV batteries.87 Key points include:If the battery is over a performance threshold,it can go on for a se

241、cond life Temperature remains the biggest influencing factor for the SoH,followed by speed of charging Consideration included for providing a certified warranty.Nissan Leaf is also exploring batteries used in stationary energy storage systems(SESS)in Tumeshima,Japan.CASE STUDY Renaults Advanced Batt

242、ery Storage ProgramRenault recovers almost 100%of batteries that no longer meet automobile requirements.884686 E-Mob:Circular economy strategies for end-of-life e-mobility batteries 87 Interview Renault Group.88#easyelectriclife.Groupe.Renault;A European agreement in favour of the circular economy o

243、f the battery Monty Rakusen/CulturaSoH testing processes are complicated and costlyConcerns over performance and safetyLack of standardised process to classify batteries for re-useHigh demand for cobalt and lithium to be recirculated into market rather than left in use89 Refurbished or repaired batt

244、eries have to compete with newer,more efficient battery technologiesCollection systems that adequately consider the safety issues of battery storageTesting and certification of batteries,enabling them to be eligible for new applications.Technology to quickly determine the performance of the battery

245、will facilitate this Materials/product passports or labels to quickly provide information on the battery A single market for second-hand batteries to increase standardisation,awareness and accessibilityPilots and R&D on second-life software and optimisationIncrease utilisation of batteriesExtending

246、the useful life of LIBs thus reducing demand for new LIBsBenefitsBarriersFuture enablersPolitecnico di Milano has recently supported the development of a new Interdepartmental Laboratory,called CIRC-eV,looking to develop and test new circular solutions for the reuse and recycling of LIBs.Its program

247、 of work covers:Utilising vision systems,databases for module classification and robotic mechanical arms for disassembly Following disassembly,developing protocols for:reassembly for specific second-life application,if sufficient residual capacity recovery of materials Mechanical pre-treatment of wa

248、ste before chemical recovery process Replicable methods for certifying the residual capacity of cells,including data analytics to reduce testing time and forecast useful life.CASE STUDY CIRC-eV4789 Bobba,Mathieux,Blengini,2019,How Will Second-Use of Batteries Affect Stocks and Flows in the EU?A Mode

249、l for Traction Li-Ion Batteries CBM6 Refurbish and maintain Repair is made difficult by the current design and manufacturing processes used for LIBs(see CBM1:Product and process design).The feasibility of this CBM is largely determined by actions in the design phase.By following principles of design

250、 for disassembly,refurbishment and repair,the costs of this model are reduced.In the WEFs Vision for a Sustainable Battery Value Chain in 2030,the effect of increasing repair of fault batteries from 80%to 95%is estimated to retain 30 GWh of battery capacity.This equates to 2 Mt of carbon emissions a

251、nd US$2 billion saved in 2030.90 Among other EOL strategies is the remanufacturing of batteries for reuse in the EV or lower performance applications.Remanufacturing is generally seen as the most environmentally friendly EOL option for a product.91 It returns a used product to like-new condition wit

252、h a warranty for the buyer and is a well-known practice in the auto industry where almost 80%of components are remanufactured.Automotive product remanufacturing accounts for two thirds of all remanufacturing and is a US$53 billion industry in the US and more than US$100 billion worldwide.91 Remanufa

253、cturing has its strongest tradition in the auto industry where EVs are the newest lines of products.To develop processes for the remanufacturing,it is important to have a good understanding on how the battery degrades to the point at which its capacity is not sufficient for EV use.LIBs at the end of

254、 their life can have their electrochemical performance regained through refunctionalisation of their cathodes.Electrochemical and chemical lithiation methods can be used to return batteries to original capacity.This results in a 50%decrease in embodied energy,compared to cathode production from virg

255、in materials.92 Remanufacturing products for their original application through methods like this could provide significant environmental and economic benefits.A recent study showed that up to a 31%increase in profit can be achieved if remanufacturing is integrated in LIB supply chain networks.93 A

256、challenge of remanufacturing is the uncertainty around cathode chemistries,given changing research and preferences.This challenge may highlight the need for government intervention.Remanufacturers profits are expected to be lower than the original manufacturers and therefore the use of incentives to

257、 promote remanufacturing have been suggested.94 This involves repairing and refurbishing part or whole of the product so it can be returned to operations or sold at the typical EOL.This may involve repairing LIBs,reusing parts of LIBs for new batteries or other applications,and refurbishing LIBs to

258、restore performance.4890 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance,2019,A Vision for a Sustainable Battery Value Chain in 203091 Gutowski,Sahiul,Boustani,Graves,2011,Remanufacturing and Energy Savings92 Ganter,Landi,Babbitt,Anctil,Guastad,2014,Cathode Refunctionalisation as a Lithium-Ion Battery

259、Recycling Alternative93 Li,Dababneh,Zheo,2018,Cost-Effective Supply Chain for Electric Vehicle Battery Remanufacturing94 Gu,Ieromonachou,Zhou,Tseng,2017,Optimising Quantity of Manufacturing and Remanufacturing in an Electric Vehicle Battery Closed-Loop Supply ChainUncertainty over future dominant ch

260、emistries Lack of motivation of battery and EV designers to design for repair,refurbishment or disassembly Determining the faults and performance of batteries through SoH testingConcerns over performance and safetyLack of a standardised process to classify batteries for re-useRefurbished or repaired

261、 batteries have to compete with newer,more efficient battery technologiesHigh demand for cobalt and lithium to be recirculated into market,therefore preference to recycle rather than reuse95 Uncertainty over EV battery performance in stationary applicationsCollection systems implemented by recovery

262、providers to enable efficient logistics in the supply chainTesting and certification of batteries that would enable them to be eligible for new applications.Technology to quickly determine the performance of the battery will facilitate this Materials/product passports or labels to quickly provide in

263、formation on the battery Government incentives to support commerciality gap of remanufacturing operations due to changing battery chemistryDesign for repair,refurbishment and disassembly Industrial symbiosis96 or collaboration between traditionally separate industriesIncrease utilisation of batterie

264、sCan sell parts cheaply to other places,where there may be people for whom the technology is less accessible Extending the useful life of LIBs thus reducing demand for new LIBsAvoid costs of new LIBsRelectrify is a start-up based in Australia that is enabling second-life applications.Its solution is

265、 software-based and enables batteries to be controlled on a more granular basis.Second-life batteries have a spread of performance and they are often limited by the weakest cell.By improving battery control systems,they are offering improved resilience to individual cell or module collapse,reduced t

266、esting needs,improved safety and cycle life,and other benefits which improve performance and costs.Relectrify is looking for collaborations with battery manufacturers,integrators and automotive companies.CASE STUDY Relectrify95 Bobba,Mathieux,Blengini,2019,How Will Second-Use of Batteries Affect Sto

267、cks and Flows in the EU?A Model for Traction Li-Ion Batteries96 Mathur,Deng,Singh,Yih,Sutherland,2019,Evaluating the Environmental Benefits of Implementing Industrial Symbiosis to Used Electric Vehicle BatteriesBenefitsBarriersFuture enablers49“Recycling old batteries and manufacturing waste could p

268、rovide an economic advantage.”Zarko Meseldzija,American Manganese Inc.50 Monty RakusenCBM7 Recycling facility Already,some materials are being recovered from LIBs.Today there are commercial-scale LIB recyclers in several European countries,the US,Canada,South Korea,Japan,China and in a few other nat

269、ions.The high value of cobalt is the current driver for recycling LIBs,100 alongside nickel and copper.101 In many cases,not all materials are recovered as the recyclers focus on these metals.The use of cobalt in LIBs is being reduced over time so this incentive will diminish.Envirostream,a subsidia

270、ry of Lithium Australia(which has published patents for a hydrometallurgical recovery process),has successfully conducted a series of recycling trials for EV battery packs and expects to ramp up recycling operations.102There are advantages and disadvantages associated with certain recycling methods,

271、and the lifecycle impacts of these methods depends on several factors.The two most prominent recycling methods are pyrometallurgy(utilising high temperatures)and hydrometallurgy(utilising aqueous solutions).These are sometimes used in combination,and with mechanical separation.Pyrometallurgical meth

272、ods are applicable to the greatest number of battery designs,which is important given uncertainty over future dominant chemistries,though they do not provide as much economic efficiency as hydrometallurgical methods.Newer methods are emerging that offer additional efficiency and recovery,though thei

273、r performance at the commercial scale is less well understood.103 The lifecycle impacts of pyrometallurgical and hydrometallurgical methods have been studied.One review found that hydrometallurgical processes recovered more materials than pyrometallurgical processes on average,and identified broad i

274、mpacts for each,as well as landfill:Pyrometallurgy:the largest impacts are caused by plastic incineration and electricity generation,causing global warming,human toxicity and terrestrial ecotoxicity potential Hydrometallurgy:the largest impacts are caused by electricity generation and landfilling re

275、sidues,causing global warming,human toxicity and terrestrial ecotoxicity potential.101,104This involves waste being transformed into raw materials to return to the circular supply chain.In 2030,based on current policies,the number of spent batteries would represent around 6.5%of the 2030 demand.97 B

276、attery recycling can provide 13%of the global battery demand for cobalt,5%of nickel and 9%of lithium in 2030.98In Australia,the value of recoverable metals from the 138,000 tonnes of LIB waste anticipated in 2036 is estimated to be between A$813 million and A$3.09 billion.9997 International Energy A

277、gency,2020,Global EV Outlook 202098 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance,2019,A Vision for a Sustainable Battery Value Chain in 203099 CSIRO,2018,Lithium Battery Recycling in Australia100 Heelan et al,2016,Current and Prospective Li-Ion Battery Recycling and Recovery Processes101 Boyden,Soo,

278、Doolan,2016,The Environmental Impacts of Recycling Portable Lithium-Ion Batteries102 Waste Management Review,2020,Envirostream to-recycle spent EV-batteries 103 Hendrickson,Kavvada,Shah,Sathre,Scown,2015,Life-cycle implications and supply chain logistics of electric vehicle battery recycling in Cali

279、fornia 104 Mathur,Deng,Singh,Yih,Sutherland,2019,Evaluating the Environmental Benefits of Implementing Industrial Symbiosis to Used Electric Vehicle Batteries51Comparing the impacts of different batteries and recycling methods will provide varying results in different contexts,since the extent of im

280、pacts are so dependent on battery design and chemicals,location(and therefore transport),usage patterns and sources of energy utilised in the supply chain.One study on hydrometallurgy recovered cobalt,nickel and lithium products at over 99.5%purity and manganese over 90%purity.105In the same study,t

281、ransport was found to have a significant influence.For example,transporting batteries from Australia to Europe was found to increase the global warming potential by 45%for pyrometallurgical processes and the human toxicity potential by 550%for hydrometallurgical processes.106There are a number of em

282、erging opportunities such as bio-leaching,107 and pre-recycling steps such as mechanical shredding and size-based sorting108 and pre-sorting of cathodes105 that can improve recycling system efficiency.Regardless of the exact solution,recycling is considered an important activity for more sustainable

283、 outcomes,particularly by reducing resource depletion and reducing air emissions.107There are several challenges of recycling that need to be addressed:There are many available chemistries,designs and manufacturing methods.Therefore,standardisation and designing for recyclability will help improve r

284、ecycling rates,in addition to an increase in the flexibility and variety of recycling facilities.Uncertainty regarding future dominant chemistries will have an influence over the most appropriate method,whether certain methods become obsolete,and the viability of recycling,especially if more valuabl

285、e materials such as cobalt are phased out 107,108 Cost of recycling processes are currently too high,as are logistics and testing of batteries which occur before recycling.SoH testing is slow and costly,so decisions on whether to reuse,repair or recycle are slow(refer to CBM 5:Lifetime extension and

286、 CBM 6:Refurbish and maintain)Lack of information and standardisation when it comes to disassembly Downcycling can occur,whereby the purity of materials produced can be low and so applications for recycled materials are reduced There is only an emerging understanding of the risks of recycling proces

287、ses for LIBs.There are physical and human health hazards via air emissions,water use and contamination,especially in emerging economies.These risks can vary depending on location,technologies,processes and mitigations Safety concerns as EOL LIBs are categorised differently across the world,as genera

288、l solid waste or hazardous or universal waste.Categorisation as hazardous or universal waste would mitigate safety risks such as spontaneous combustion or release of hazardous chemicals in landfill108 though the price of logistics would necessarily rise Reducing complexity of logistics should be add

289、ressed alongside other challenges,and careful thought should be given to balancing safety and performance with travel distances and legislation rigidity.105 Chen,Ho,2018,Recovery of Valuable Metals from Lithium-Ion Batteries NMC Cathode Waste Materials by Hydrometallurgical Methods106 Boyden,Soo,Doo

290、lan,2016,The Environmental Impacts of Recycling Portable Lithium-Ion Batteries107 Ordoez,Gego,Girard,2015,Processes and Technologies for the Recycling and Recovery of Spent Lithium-Ion Batteries108 Wang,Gaustad,Babbitt,2015,Targeting High Value Metals in Lithium-Ion Battery Recycling Via Shredding a

291、nd Size-Based Separation52109 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance,2019,A Vision for a Sustainable Battery Value Chain in 2030The ultimate goal is to address these challenges while creating a recycling industry that is:Flexible,considering how requirements may change over the coming decadesS

292、tandardised,to enable greater information sharing and efficiency during deconstruction and recycling.Given the importance of LIB composition and design,the more information recyclers have about the materials of a given battery,the better able they are to process it.For this reason,telemetry and mate

293、rials passports will likely play a key role in the future recycling industry.In 2018,demand for lead-acid batteries(LABs)was 450 GWh and demand is expected to stay steady over the coming decade.Lessons can be learned from the EOL treatment of LABs.In many countries,the environmental impact of these

294、batteries has been significant.Lead exposure and lead release into the environment are consequences of below standard facilities.However,in Europe and North America,the approach has had more success.They have been able to implement point-of-sale return systems that have closed loops up to 99%.Tight

295、regulations are in place to protect worker safety and the environment.109CASE STUDY Lead-acid batteries53Unclear allocation of responsibility and costMagnitude of cost and responsibility of logisticsLack of standardisation for waste collection,regulation,hazardous materials and approvalsInsufficient

296、 standardisation of battery designNeed to balance local,decentralised solutions with the efficiency and scale of centralised operationsInvestment to develop appropriate infrastructureClear and standardised rules for collection,repair,resale and recycling111R&D into key topics such as improving the q

297、uality of recycled materialsExtended Producer Responsibility schemesDesign for disassembly,including information sharing of disassembly guidelines and creation of materials passportsTaxes or tariffs on imported batteries that can fund EOL activitiesBest practice guidelinesReduces raw material demand

298、 and captures current lost value of used materialsJob creation for waste collectors,pre-treatment companies,waste managers,waste processers and researchersEnvironmental impact of EOL controlled and reducedHigh potential for revenue creation,especially through rare earth metalsOpportunity for further

299、 innovation and development of recycling processes and productsBenefitsBarriersFuture enablers110 UNSW Sydney:Smart centers new ARC industrial transformation hub microrecycling battery and consumer wastes111 Huang,Pan,Su,An,2018,Recycling of Lithium-Ion Batteries:Recent advances and perspectives Whi

300、le the world tends towards globalisation and macro-scale recycling,it can be a challenge for areas with lower population densities and slower uptake of EVs to keep up with global leaders.In Australia,large distances between cities and neighbouring countries makes logistics expensive,and the uptake o

301、f EVs has lagged behind other western countries.This gives Australia time to learn from other regions and implement solutions later.Countries facing these challenges are looking for alternative solutions.Compelling research is being completed that focuses on micro-recycling at the local scale.This r

302、esearch is being led by Australia where Professor Veena Sahajwalla and the SMaRT Center is running the ARC Industrial Transformation Hub for Micro-recycling of Battery and Consumer Wastes,funded by the Australian Research Council.110 The project is focused on developing Australias advanced manufactu

303、ring capability,utilising high-temperature reactions and selective synthesis techniques to create valuable products including metallic alloys,oxides and carbon.These products will feed into both local and global supply chains.Micro-recycling is anticipated to be a significant enabler for countries l

304、ike Australia where distances are large and volume is small,relative to areas like the EU.This process of decentralisation could also develop manufacturing skills and jobs in rural centres and cities alike.Micro-recycling and decentralisation54Who bears the costs of recycling?The storage,treatment,d

305、isassembly,recovery,recycling,disposal,and management of the processes comes at a cost.The matter of who pays these costs,and when,is critical.Government?This approach ultimately makes the community,which does not necessarily directly cause nor benefit from correcting the externality,indirectly resp

306、onsible for bearing the costs.Producers?This would fall under an Extended Producer Responsibility(EPR)principle.Consumers?This is a common approach that could be implemented at alternative EOL cycles either at the start as an upfront recycling fee or at the end as a disposal fee.and when?Funding for

307、 recycling could be before or after use.55In the EU,the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment(WEEE)Directive relies on the EPR principle,whereby producers are responsible for waste regardless of their location.In addition,the Directive outlines:Recovery and recycling targets including weight rec

308、overy quota,ramped up over time E-waste requirements outlining how to handle waste in order to protect the environment and human health Allocated responsibilities for financing,reporting and information List of wastes including common nomenclature,terminology,coding and classification Registration o

309、f modules and specific labelling required.When it comes to EVs specifically,End-of-Vehicle directives require the automakers to take extended responsibility for their vehicles and components after use(EU/Directive 2000/53EC,ELV).Under the extended responsibility,automakers are financially or physica

310、lly responsible for their vehicles at the end of their lifecycles.This new responsibility requires that automakers either take back their products with the aim of reusing,recycling,or remanufacturing,or delegate this responsibility to a third party.In the EU,the pay-as-you-go approach provides a goo

311、d case study and has proven to be more cost-effective.CASE STUDY Regulation in the EU56 Ladislav Kube/istockThe Batteries Directive 2006/66/EC is extending the product life of batteries as a waste prevention measure,through better re-use,or providing used batteries with a second life,which fully com

312、plies with circular economy principles:A circular economy keeps the added value in products for as long as possible and eliminates waste Member States shall take measures to promote re-use activities and the extension of the life span of products,provided the quality and safety of products are not c

313、ompromised,by encouraging the establishment and support of recognised re-use networks and by incentivising remanufacturing,refurbishment and repurposing of products.From numerous contacts,presentations and congresses,it seems that the priorities of the legislator regarding batteries is now evolving

314、into the direction of:Extension of the products service life Re-use and second life Use of recycled components and materials.In the EU,the Strategic Action Plan for Batteries112 in Europe was adopted in May 2018.It brings together a set of measures to support national,regional and industrial efforts

315、 to build a battery value chain in Europe,embracing raw material extraction,sourcing and processing,battery materials,cell production,battery systems,as well as reuse and recycling.In combination with the leverage offered by its market size,it seeks to attract investment and establish Europe as a pl

316、ayer in the battery industry.112 European Commission:ANNEX 2 Strategic Action Plan on Batteries57With the industry on the cusp of exponential growth in the uptake of LIBs globally,policy makers,industry and investors need to work together to establish the policy,technology and business models that e

317、nable a circular economy for the industry.Recommendations58PolicymakersProduct stewardshipProduct stewardship allocates responsibility to either those who design,produce,sell or consume a product for minimising the products environmental impact.The design of product stewardship schemes,including EOL

318、,is a key issue and should be a priority for countries without stewardships schemes.The WEEE Directive in the EU has been a leader in this area and can provide key lessons for other regions and countries.Mandatory schemes have greater potential for impact,however,they need to be considered in the co

319、ntext in which they occur and developed collaboratively with industry to ensure they are fit-for-purpose.Incentives and leversGovernment-led change and support for industry help provide the necessary shift to the circular economy mindset.Typical interventions include:Education,information and awaren

320、ess raising campaigns Collaboration platforms(public-private partnerships,R&D programs,cooperative research centre funding etc)Business support schemes(incentives/financing,advisory/support)Public procurement targets/guidelines for assets Provisions of public infrastructure to support the ecosystem

321、Regulatory frameworks(targets,product regulations,waste regulations,other regulations,reporting regulations)Fiscal frameworks(tax changes/support).Each of these interventions has the potential to increase confidence and reduce risk for all CBMs from design to use and recovery.In 2019,the European Co

322、mmission approved 3.2 billion in national incentives for research and innovation projects across the battery value chain.113 Policymakers should foster a supportive regulatory,research and business environment for circular business models locally and internationally.RecommendationsImplement product

323、stewardship schemes to allocate responsibility for LIB components and materialsDevelop financial incentives and use policy levers to spur demand for circular solutionsWork with industry and other governments to facilitate standardisation where appropriate“Its important we do this early so its not an

324、 issue.”Joyanne Manning Arup(Australasian Resource and Waste Leader)113 European Commission:Commission approves 3.2 billion public support by seven Member States for a pan-European research and innovation project in all segments of the battery value chain59The influence of some players is greater th

325、an others.China,the EU and the US are significant producers and consumers of LIBs,and their role will be more significant than others.Working togetherGovernment has an important role to play in leading partnerships between the public and private sector,as well as creating the environment and schemes

326、 within which partnerships and innovation can occur.These partnerships will have to bring together players from across the supply chain and across industries.For example,to enable certain sharing models,the automotive industry and grid operators will have to coordinate activities.Governments will al

327、so have to harmonise approaches across borders,given the global nature of the LIB supply chain.The EU is leading as policy makers in many ways.In 2018,the European Commission signed an agreement on innovation with European manufacturers aimed at facilitating the reuse and recycling of EV LIBs.Toolki

328、t for Policymakers Ellen MacArthur FoundationThis toolkit provides insights,a step-by-step approach and eleven tools for creating policies that promote circular behaviour,alongside a case study in Denmark.Policy intervention types,methods for identification and prioritisation of ideas,and qualitativ

329、e and quantitative tools for estimating value,implications and barriers,are just some of the contents of the report designed to enable policymakers to take the first steps towards creating circular industries.114 World Economic Forum,Global Battery Alliance,2019,A Vision for a Sustainable Battery Va

330、lue Chain in 2030China is expected to capture 41%of the revenues from the global battery supply chain in 2030.This is in line with their anticipated demand for EVs 43%of the market in 2030.114 60IndustryDataData is a key enabler for the circular economy.The right data systems and product/material tr

331、acking systems could easily inform recyclers what a battery is made of,provide access to instructions for disassembly or repair,and enable the use case and performance of batteries to be tracked over their first,second or later uses,providing visibility over who is responsible for them at their EOL.

332、In Australia,the CSIRO has identified that the“variability and difficulty in collecting data illustrates the difficulties in understanding stocks and flows for LIBs from sales to EOL,and poses challenges for forecasting and predicting future trends”.115 Given the low levels of collection and recover

333、y in Australia,improvements in tracking will play an important role moving forward.Design for reuse and disassemblyIncreasing modularisation,reducing the number of steps and tools required for disassembly and sharing information on materials and disassembly are just some steps that could be taken.Most of the consideration of design for reuse and disassembly is concentrated in academic research,and