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1、The shaded areas of the map indicate ESCAP members and associate members.*The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)serves as the United Nations regional hub,promoting cooperation among countries to achieve inclusive and sustainable devel-opment.The largest regional intergove

2、rnmental platform with 53 member States and 9 associate members,ESCAP has emerged as a strong regional think-tank offering countries sound analytical products that shed insight into the evolving economic,social and environmental dynamics of the region.The Commissions strategic focus is to deliver on

3、 the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Develop-ment,which it does by reinforcing and deepening regional cooperation and integration to advance connectivity,financial cooperation and market integration.The research and analysis undertaken by ESCAP,coupled with its policy advisory services,capacity building

4、 and technical assistance to governments aims to support countries sustainable and inclusive development ambitions.*The designations employed and the presentation of material on this map do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nations concer

5、ning the legal status of any country,territory,city or area or of its authorities,or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.United Nations publication Copyright United Nations 2024 All rights reserved ESCAP/9-TR/18Photo Credits:Cover designed by Xiao Dong with material from F.Thi

6、s publication may be reproduced in whole or in part for educational or non-profit purposes without special permission from the copyright holder,provided that the source is acknowledged.The ESCAP Publications Office would appreciate receiving a copy of any publication that uses this publication as a

7、source.Use may not be made of this publication for resale or any other commercial purpose whatsoever without prior permission.Applications for such permission,with a statement of the purpose and extent of reproduction,should be addressed to the Secretary of the Publications Board,United Nations,New

8、York.Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandiForewordAcknowledgementsThe Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)and the Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency(DEDE)has assigned the National Scienc

9、e and Technology Development Agency(NSTDA)through the National Energy Technology Center(ENTEC)to conduct a study on the challenges and opportunities of developing electric vehicles for the land public transport sector in four provinces in Thailand.On behalf of all three agencies,the research team wo

10、uld like to thank the Department of Land Transport for their assistance in giving their opinions and coordinating preparation for survey trips to the field together with the Khon Kaen Provincial Transport Office,Chiang Mai Provincial Transport Office,Phuket Provincial Transport Office and Chonburi P

11、rovincial Transport Office for their assistance both in providing useful information for the project and in facilitating coordination with operators to give useful suggestions for conducting public vehicle surveys within each province.Finally,the authors would like to thank the operators in the targ

12、et provinces for their assistance in giving interviews to collect necessary data and providing useful recommendations to the project to improve the results of the analysis to achieve project goals and objectives,and various agencies,both government agencies and private sector operators in the target

13、 provinces through meetings to prepare field surveys and publicize the project.The authors hope that this report will help drive the transition of the public land transport sector to electric vehicles in other provinces of the country in the future.iiChallenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Ba

14、sed Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandForeword:ESCAPThe United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)extends its gratitude to the Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency(DEDE)of Thailand for its cooperation in developing this insightful

15、 study on the electrification of public transport in four provinces of Thailand.This collaboration reflects the priority placed by the Government of Thailand to make a decisive shift to electrification of the transport sector as reflected in the 3030 Electric Vehicle Policy,which establishes a targe

16、t for Zero Emission Vehicles.This moves towards electrification of all types of vehicles will further support of the targets of SDG 7 and the Paris Agreement.By focusing on public transport,this report highlights a sector which offers many advantages for vehicle electrification,such as high mileage

17、vehicles and economies of scale.Most importantly,the successful electrification of public transport fleets will offer lower cost and more sustainable travel options for the public,allowing the benefits of electrification not extend further.The analysis in this report,developed by the National Energy

18、 Technology Centre(ENTEC)under the guidance of DEDE and ESCAP,highlights that there are a range of different public transport vehicles and route characteristics across the four provinces.Each vehicle type shows different degrees of cost effectiveness for electrification,with the upfront cost a notab

19、le challenge.In addition,the presence of charging infrastructure is essential to enable a smooth transition to electrification.I am confident that the insights arising from the analysis in this report will provide valuable guidance for Thailand in planning its public transport electrification journe

20、y.In addition,I hope that this study may prove useful to other countries also seeking to enhance the use of electric vehicles in public transport.ESCAP is ready to continue its support to member States in this vital area.Hongpeng LiuDirector,Energy Division,ESCAPiiiForeword:DEDEForewordivChallenges

21、and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandContentsAcknowledgements iForeword:ESCAP iiForeword:DEDE iiiAbbreviations and acronyms viiExecutive Summary viiiChapter 1:Introduction 11.1 Project Inception.11.2 Project Objectives.21.3 Implementation Plan.3Chap

22、ter 2:Electric Vehicle Promotion in Thailand 42.1 Electric Vehicle Policies and Targets in Thailand.42.2 Electric Vehicle Investment Promotion Plan in Thailand.42.3 Excise Tax Structure for Electric Vehicles in Thailand.62.4 Guidelines for Supporting Converted Electric Vehicles in Thailand.8Chapter

23、3:Public Transport Sector in Thailand and the 4 Target Provinces 103.1 Target Provinces.103.2DefinitionandClassificationofPublicVehicles.113.2.1DefinitionsandStandards.113.2.2 Type of Vehicle by Registration.113.2.3 Types of Vehicle Registration .133.2.4 Types of passenger vehicle .133.3 Statistics

24、on public passenger vehicles in the four target provinces.133.4 Analysis of Four Target Provinces.15Chapter 4:Survey and Data Analysis Guidelines for the Four Target Provinces 184.1 Assessment of the Potential to Reduce Carbon Dioxide Emissions.184.2CostBenefitEstimatesofInvestment.194.3 Data Survey

25、 Guidelines.194.3.1 Data Items for Analysis.205.1 Chiang Mai.255.1.1SampleGroup.255.1.2ResultsofCarbonDioxideEmissionEstimatesinthePublicTransportSector,ChiangMai.25vContentsChapter 5:Results of Survey and Data Analysis for the Four Target Provinces 255.1.3ResultsofCost-BenefitAnalysis.295.1.4Estima

26、teofInterestinSwitchingtoElectricVehicles.315.1.5OpinionsandRecommendationsonElectricPublicVehicles,ChiangMai.345.2 Khon Kaen.375.2.1SampleGroup.375.2.2ResultsofCarbonDioxideEmissionEstimatesinthePublicTransportSector,KhonKaen.385.2.3ResultsofCost-BenefitAnalysis.405.2.4 Estimate of interest in swit

27、ching to EVs.415.2.5Opinionsandrecommendationsonpublicelectricvehicles,KhonKaen.445.3 Chonburi .475.3.1SampleGroup.475.3.2ResultsofCarbonDioxideEmissionEstimatesinthePublicTransportSector,Chonburi.475.3.3Resultsofcost-benefitanalysis.505.3.4EstimateofInterestinSwitchingtoEVs.525.3.5OpinionsandRecomm

28、endationsonPublicEVs,Chonburi.535.4 Phuket.575.4.1SampleGroup.575.4.2ResultsofCarbonDioxideEmissionEstimatesinthePublicTransportSector,Phuket.575.4.3ResultsofCost-BenefitAnalysis.605.4.4EstimateofInterestinSwitchingtoElectricVehicles.625.4.5Opinionsandrecommendationsonpublicelectricvehicles,Phuket.6

29、4Chapter 6:Summary and Recommendations 68Annexes 71Annex1PaybackPeriodAnalysisforEachProvince.71Annex2Inceptionworkshopsinfourprovinces.79Annex3DataSurveyFormonEnergyConsumptionbyPublicVehicles.91Annex4Situationoffieldvisitsbytargetprovince.94Annex5Stakeholderconsultationworkshopspresentingresultsto

30、fourprovinces.100References 111viChallenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandList of figuresFigure 4-1 Data survey plan.19Figure5-1AveragePassengerTransport(VKT),ChiangMai.27Figure5-2AveragePassenger-KilometresperYear(PKT),ChiangMai.28Figure5-3A

31、veragefueleconomy,ChiangMai.28Figure 5-4 Average CO2emissions,ChiangMai.28Figure5-5AbreakdownofTCO(fixed-routevehicle),ChiangMai.29Figure5-6BreakdownofTCO(non-fixed-routevehicles),ChiangMai.29Figure5-7InterestinconvertingtousingpublicEVs,ChiangMai.32Figure5-8Interestinconvertingtousingfixed-routepub

32、licEVs,ChiangMai.32Figure5-9Interestinconvertingtousingnon-fixed-routepublicEVs,ChiangMai.32Figure5-10AveragePassengerTransport(VKT),KhonKaen.39Figure5-11AveragePassenger-KilometresperYear(PKT),KhonKaen.39Figure5-12Averagefueleconomy,KhonKaen.39Figure5-13AverageCO2emissions,KhonKaen.40Figure5-14Brea

33、kdownofTCO(fixed-routevehicles),KhonKaen.40Figure5-15BreakdownofTCO(non-fixed-routevehicles),KhonKaen.41Figure5-16OverallinterestinswitchingtopublicEVs,KhonKaen.42Figure5-17Interestinswitchingtofixed-routepublicEVs,KhonKaen.42Figure5-18Interestinswitchingtonon-fixed-routepublicEVs,KhonKaen.42Figure5

34、-19AveragePassengerTransport(VKT),Chonburi.48Figure5-20AveragePassenger-KilometresperYear(PKT),Chonburi.49Figure5-21Averagefueleconomy,Chonburi.49Figure 5-22 Average CO2emissions,Chonburi.49Figure5-23BreakdownofTCO(fixed-routevehicles),Chonburi.50Figure5-24BreakdownofTCO(non-fixed-routevehicles),Cho

35、nburi.50Figure5-25OverallinterestinswitchingtopublicEVs,Chonburi.52Figure5-26Interestinswitchingtofixed-routepublicEVs,Chonburi.52Figure5-27Interestinswitchingtonon-fixed-routepublicEVs,Chonburi.53Figure5-28AveragePassengerTransport(VKT),Phuket.59Figure5-29AveragePassenger-KilometresperYear(PKT),Phu

36、ket.59Figure5-30Averagefueleconomy,Phuket.59Figure 5-31 Average CO2emissions,Phuket.60Figure5-32BreakdownofTCO(fixed-routevehicles),Phuket.60Figure5-33BreakdownofTCO(non-fixed-routevehicles),Phuket.61Figure5-34Overallinterestinswitchingtopublicelectricvehicles,Phuket.63Figure5-35Interestinswitchingt

37、ofixed-routepublicelectricvehicles,Phuket.63Figure5-36Interestinswitchingtonon-fixed-routepublicelectricvehicles,Phuket.63viiList of tablesTable 1 Numbers of public transportation vehicles in the 4 target provinces.ixTable2BaselineGHGEmission(tCO2eq/year).xTable2-1Thailandszero-emissionvehicletarget

38、sforallvehicletypes3030policy,National Electric Vehicle Policy Committee Report.5Table 2-2 Battery Electric Vehicle Promotion Policy.5Table2-3InvestmentPromotionPlantoSupportElectricVehiclesinThailand.6Table 2-4 Proposed new vehicle excise tax structure.7Table 2-5 Annual EV tax rate with support.8Ta

39、ble2-6Measurestopromoteconvertedelectricvehiclesaccordingtotargetgroup.9Table3-1Detailedcharacteristicsoffixed-routepassengervehicles.11Table3-2Typesofpublicvehiclesforhireclassifiedaccordingtothe1979VehicleAct.13Table 3-3 Vehicle registration type details.14Table 3-4 Department of Land Transport st

40、atistics on public passenger vehicles in the four target provinces.16Table 4-1 Data items to be analysed by public transport category.20Table5-1NumberoftransportoperatorssurveyedinChiangMai.26Table5-2NumberofdriversrentingpublictransportvehiclessurveyedinChiangMai.26Table5-3Numberofownersofpublictra

41、nsportvehiclessurveyedinChiangMai.26Table5-4Estimatedcarbondioxideemissionsinpublicvehicles,ChiangMai.27Table5-5Interestamongdriversinswitchingtoelectricvehiclesreasonsandconcerns,ChiangMai.33Table5-6Opinionsandrecommendations,ChiangMai.35Table5-7Groupingofopinionsandrecommendations,ChiangMai.36Tabl

42、e5-8NumberoftransportoperatorssurveyedinKhonKaen.37Table5-9NumberofdriversrentingpublictransportvehiclessurveyedinKhonKaen.37Table5-10NumberofownersofpublictransportvehiclessurveyedinKhonKaen.37Table5-11Estimatedcarbondioxideemissionsinpublicvehicles,KhonKaen.38Table5-12InterestinswitchingtoEVsreaso

43、nsandconcerns,KhonKaen.43Table5-13Opinionsandrecommendations,KhonKaen.45Table5-14Groupingofopinionsandrecommendations,KhonKaen.46Table 5-15 Number of transport operators surveyed in Chonburi.47Table 5-16 Number of drivers renting public transport vehicles surveyed in Chonburi.47Table 5-17 Number of

44、owners of public transport vehicles surveyed in Chonburi.47Table5-18Estimatedcarbondioxideemissionsinpublicvehicles,Chonburi.48Table5-19InterestinswitchingtoEVsreasonsandconcerns,Chonburi.54Table5-20Opinionsandrecommendations,Chonburi.55Table5-21Groupingofopinionsandrecommendations,Chonburi.56Table5

45、-22NumberoftransportoperatorssurveyedinPhuket.57Table5-23NumberofdriversrentingpublictransportvehiclessurveyedinPhuket.57Table5-24NumberofownersofpublictransportvehiclessurveyedinPhuket.57Table5-25Estimatedcarbondioxideemissionsinpublicvehicles,Phuket.58Table5-26Interestinswitchingtoelectricvehicles

46、reasonsandconcerns,Phuket.64Table5-27Opinionsandrecommendations,Phuket.66Table5-28Groupingofopinionsandrecommendations,Phuket.67ContentsviiiChallenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandAbbreviations and acronyms4D1E Digitalization,Decarbonization

47、,Decentralization,De-regulation and ElectrificationADAS Advanced Driver Assistance SystemsBEV Battery Electric VehicleCBU Completely Built UpCKD Completely Knocked DownCO2 Carbon DioxideDC Double CabDLT Department of Land Transport ER Electric RangeENTEC National Energy Technology CentreESCAP Econom

48、ic and Social Commission for Asia and the PacificEV Electric VehicleFC Fuel Consumption(L/100km)FCEV Fuel Cell Electric VehicleFE Fuel Economy(km/l)GHG Greenhouse GasICE Internal Combustion EngineMLR Minimum Loan RateMoEN Ministry of EnergyMPV Multi-Purpose VehicleMRV Measurement,Reporting and Verif

49、icationNDC Nationally Determined ContributionNEP National Energy PlanPAO Provincial Administrative OrganizationPKT Passenger Kilometres TravelledPPV Pick-Up Passenger VehicleSD Standard deviationSUV Sports Utility VehicleTCO Total Cost of OwnershipTKT Ton Kilometres TravelledVKT Vehicle Kilometres T

50、ravelledZEV Zero Emission VehicleAbbreviation Full NameAbbreviation Full NameixExecutive SummaryExecutive SummaryThe transportation sector releases approximately 25 per cent of global carbon dioxide(CO2)through the combustion of fossil fuels.By 2050,the global share of CO2 from the transportation se

51、ctor will increase significantly.At COP 26,in its Nationally Determined Contribution,Thailand pledged to reduce greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions by 30-40 per cent by 2030.Thailand also committed to reaching carbon neutrality by 2050 and net zero GHG emissions by 2065.The National Energy Plan,which is be

52、ing updated by the Ministry of Energy,will focus not only on energy security but also plans to help achieve the carbon neutrality goal.As the transportation sector in Thailand emits significant quantities of CO2,one of the key strategies is the 3030 Electric Vehicle Policy,which establishes a target

53、 for Zero Emission Vehicles,defined as Battery Electric Vehicles and Fuel Cell Electric Vehicles,to constitute 30 per cent of total automotive production by 2030.The Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP)understands the importance of supporting the Thai Government through the

54、 Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency(DEDE).The study was conducted with technical support from experts to understand the challenges and opportunities with regard to electric vehicles(EVs)in public land transportation.The study identified types of public transportation systems

55、 and target areas that have potential to convert from internal combustion engines(ICEs)to EVs.The study started with a literature survey of EV promotion in Thailand with feedback obtained from relevant organizations in four target provinces prior to conducting surveys to analyse the potential for re

56、ducing CO2 emissions and assessing the cost-effectiveness of investment in conversion.Target ProvincesThe four target provinces,Chiang Mai,Khon Kaen,Chonburi and Phuket,were selected based on the potential of public transportation to convert from ICEs to EVs.These provinces are either a transportati

57、on hub or a tourist destination.Chiang Mai is a tourist destination with unique public transportation,including red song thaeo,also known as rot daeng,which are often used for tourism promotion in the province.Khon Kaen is the transportation hub of the Northeast Region linking to neighbouring provin

58、ces and is also a centre for education and public health.Chonburi is a major transit point to other destinations in the East and includes major tourist destinations like Pattaya.Most public vehicles are taxis that provide a service to and from Suvarnabhumi Airport in Bangkok in under two hours.Phuke

59、t is visited by large numbers of local and foreign tourists and has the highest tourism revenue in Thailand.A variety of public transportation systems serve tourists.Public Transportation StatisticsAll vehicles in Thailand are legally required to be registered for public road usage with the Departme

60、nt of Land Transport,Ministry of Transport,under two acts,namely the Motor Vehicle Act for light vehicles(sedans/pickups or smaller)and the Land Transport Act for heavy vehicles(buses and trucks),passenger vans and song thaeo)that carry more passengers than taxis or two/three-wheelers.There xChallen

61、ges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of Thailandare many vehicle registration categories depending on vehicle use.Table 1 shows the categories of public passenger vehicles relevant to the four targeted provinces.Under the Land Transport Act,fixed-route bus

62、es are classified into four categories by operating route as follows:Category 1:buses operating on routes within the Bangkok Metropolitan Region and contiguous areas.Category 2:buses operating on routes between Bangkok and other provinces.Category 3:buses operating on routes from one province to ano

63、ther.Category 4:buses operating from one district to another within the same province.Table 1 Numbers of public transportation vehicles in the 4 target provincesTypes of VehiclesChiang MaiKhon KaenChonburiPhuketTotalVehicleunderMotorVehicleActRo.Yo.6UrbanTaxi117284525538-Private793490169-Corporate38

64、250435369Ro.Yo.7FixedRouteTaxi-514Ro.Yo.8TukTuk(Three-wheelers)1,072395812-Ro.Yo.10TourTaxi6-52,020Ro.Yo.17PublicMotorcycle(Taxi)312887,758969Total Vehicle under Land Transport ActFixed Route 1,8151,3442,580364 Category 11,47833586938 Category 2338521431 Category 31848318770 Category 42724261,305225

65、 International22-N/A12135-Non-Fixed Route3,3003043,9266,992Private 337386546174Grand Total5,452 2,034 7,052 12,109 Note:Ro.Yo.is the abbreviation for rot yon(vehicle).Chiang Mai is mostly served by 3,300 non-fixed-route pickup trucks(rot daeng)compared to 1,815 fixed-route buses.As the transportatio

66、n hub of the Northeast region,Khon Kaen has more fixed-route buses(1,344 vehicles)providing long-distance services to other provinces from the main transportation terminals(airport and bus stations),than non-fixed-route buses(304 vehicles).As the gateway to the East with globally popular tourist att

67、ractions like Pattaya,Chonburi has many non-fixed-route buses(3,926 vehicles)offering a door-to-door service for tourists from/to Suvarnabhumi Airport while urban taxis(525 vehicles)and Category 1 fixed-route buses provide services within Chonburi and large Category 4 fixed-route buses serve local p

68、eople in the tourism industry who commute to work in the Pattaya area.Motorcycle taxis(7,758 vehicles)are also very popular in the province,mostly for short distances,xiExecutive Summarysimilar to motorcycle taxi services in Bangkok.Phuket,an island tourist attraction in the South over 800 kilometre

69、s from Bangkok has a large number of non-fixed-route buses(6,992 vehicles),urban taxis(538 vehicles),fixed-route taxis(514 vehicles)and tour taxis(2,020 vehicles)serving mainly foreign tourists,with relatively few fixed-route buses(364 vehicles)to serve local residents.Phuket has more non-fixed-rout

70、e vehicles than other provinces.Results from the survey in target provincesIn order to assess the potential for decarbonizing the public transport sector via EVs,a bottom-up approach was chosen,where each vehicle category was surveyed to assess current use,in terms of number of vehicles in each cate

71、gory,vehicle-kilometres of travel,fuel economy and fuel emission factors,in order to quantify baseline emissions as shown in Table 2.In addition,expense-related parameters,such as capital/conversion costs,operating/maintenance costs and revenues,were surveyed for Total Cost of Ownership(TCO)analysis

72、 to compare conventional ICEs and EVs,as well as a cost-benefit fiscal and environmental analysis of switching from ICEs to EVs.Table 2 Baseline GHG Emission(tCO2eq/year)Vehicle TypeChiang MaiKhon KaenChonburiPhuketFixed routeSong-Thaeo(Diesel)14.8318.0613.576.42Van(Diesel)15.52Bus/Minibus(Diesel)4.

73、1082.47Non-fixedrouteMotorcycle(Gasoline)2.872.482.182.51Tuk-Tuk(LPG)6.108.396.406.27Taxi(Gasoline)13.2016.20Taxi(Diesel)16.4925.2618.90Taxi(LPG)16.909.91Taxi(NGV)11.29Van(Diesel)12.08Song-Thaeo(Diesel)10.14In Chiang Mai,taxis(diesel)have high CO2 emissions because most are pick-up passenger vehicle

74、s(PPV)with poor fuel economy.As total cost of ownership(TCO)of taxis(diesel)decreases by 23 per cent and energy consumption by 73 per cent when switching from ICEs to EVs,the percentage of public vehicle owners and enterprises interested in converting to EVs is as high as 70 per cent.However,the ava

75、ilability of charging stations,the efficiency of EVs,their range,their ability to drive uphill and maintenance costs are still primary concerns,based on users perceptions.In Khon Kaen,song thaeo(diesel)have high levels of emissions because,with low operating speeds and frequent stops to pick up pass

76、engers,their fuel economy is the worse than all other types of vehicle.Switching from ICEs-to-EVs,the TCO of motorcycles decreases by 75 per cent and maintenance costs decrease by 13 per cent.A relatively high percentage(70 per cent)of operators are interested in EVs for reasons of energy efficiency

77、,pollution reduction and conformity to global trends.However,high costs,range and the availability of charging stations are still concerns.Operators would like the government to subsidize the cost of EVs and develop more charging stations to promote their use.xiiChallenges and Opportunities for Elec

78、tric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandIn Chonburi,taxis(diesel)emit the most CO2 because they are mostly driven from Suvarnabhumi Airport to the province,frequently with a return journey to pick up new passengers at the airport.With regard to the TCO of taxis(diesel),energy c

79、osts of EVs are 78 per cent lower than ICEs and maintenance costs are 18 per cent lower.77 per cent of fixed-route and non-fixed-route operators have an interest in EV conversion despite concerns about range,charging stations,costs and standard EV conversion.Operators would also prefer the governmen

80、t to encourage investment,disseminate knowledge and know-how,and support testing for the safety of EV conversion due to high initial costs.In Phuket,the vehicles that emit most CO2 are buses and minibuses(diesel)because of poor fuel economy over a relatively high vehicle-kilometres travelled(VKT).Th

81、e survey found that routes in Phuket are hilly and carry heavy traffic,especially those to Patong beach.Taxis(diesel)have the best TCO with energy costs of EVs 79 per cent lower.Hence,77 per cent of public transport operators are interested in EVs due to fuel cost savings and emissions reduction.How

82、ever,range,performance and charging stations are also concerns.In conclusion,the costs of EV conversion in Chiang Mai,Khon Kaen and Chonburi are still relatively high with all provinces having similar potential for CO2 emission reductions.An EV conversion policy/plan can be customized for each publi

83、c transport sector.For instance,in Chiang Mai the focus should be on switching to EVs or converting rot daeng,In Khon Kaen the focus should be on fixed-route buses for local transportation,and in Chonburi on non-fixed-route buses/taxis for tourists and fixed-route buses/motorcycle taxis for local re

84、sidents.Phuket has a greater potential to reduce CO2 emissions since most operators are interested in EVs because of their energy efficiency,maintenance costs and relatively lower levels of pollution.However,there are still concerns about the high cost of vehicles and batteries.Government support in

85、 the form of e.g.tax and loan subsidies is essential to drive the transition to EVs.The Government should also accelerate the development of infrastructure for charging EVs to meet growing demand.The DEDE can promote the use of EVs in public transportation through pilot projects to incentivize or fa

86、cilitate decision-making.Alternatively,the DEDE may study appropriate business models for EVs in each type of public transportation,starting with Phuket,which shows the best potential based on the results of this study,to help promote EV conversion to reduce the use of fossil fuels in the country.ES

87、CAP may consider using the results to address public transportation systems in other countries of the Asia-Pacific region to expand the potential for CO2 emission reduction and the feasibility of investing in EVs for public transportation.Chapter1:Introduction11.Introduction1.1 Project InceptionThe

88、transport sector currently is the source of around 25 per cent of carbon dioxide emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels and its share of global carbon dioxide emissions is expected to increase significantly.There is therefore an urgent need for measures to reduce carbon dioxide emissions to a

89、chieve the Paris Agreement objective of limiting the average global temperature increase to below 2 degrees Celsius,in line with the outcome of the 26th Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change(COP 26),where world leaders acknowledged the importance of a

90、 rapid and sustainable reduction in greenhouse gas(GHG)emissions in all sectors including transportation.Switching to the use of electricity in the transportation sector is one option to reduce GHG emissions in the transportation sector,as one of the key mechanisms of a sustainable energy transition

91、 because of its several benefits,including:reducing automotive GHG emissions and contributing to the Paris Agreement;serving as an energy storage source to promote the use of electricity from renewable energy;reducing dependence on fossil fuel imports for transportation,which will increase energy se

92、curity and reduce foreign currency spending;eliminating local air pollution,which will improve the quality of life for people across the country.2Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandAt COP 26,Thailand announced an increase in its Nationa

93、lly Determined Contribution(NDC)targets of 30-40 per cent by 2030,achieving carbon neutrality by 2050 and achieving net-zero GHG emissions by 2065.The Ministry of Energy has therefore conducted a review of the National Energy Plan(NEP)to support the achievement of these goals.The main concepts of th

94、e NEP include:increasing the proportion of new electricity generation through renewable energy to not less than 50 per cent;transforming transportation energy consumption into green electricity through EV technology according to the 3030 policy;increasing energy efficiency by more than 30 per cent;r

95、estructuring the energy industry to support the trend of energy transition in line with the 4D1E guidelines(Digitalization,Decarbonization,Decentralization,De-regulation and Electrification).It can be seen that one of the main strategies in the NEP is support for EVs in line with the 3030 policy,to

96、enable Thailand to achieve the countrys long-term GHG emission goals through improving energy efficiency in the transportation sector,increasing the ability to change from fossil fuels to green electricity,and helping to solve air quality problems caused by PM 2.5 dust.The goal is to increase the sh

97、are of Zero Emission Vehicle(ZEV)production to 30 per cent of total vehicle production by 2030 through promoting the use of EVs together with support for the battery industry and infrastructure development,such as promoting the development of an adequate network of charging stations.The goal is to d

98、evelop more than 12,000 public charging stations nationwide by 2030,to create regulations and standards by supporting the development of charging stations and promoting smart grid technology to link and manage integrated charging.However,even if e-mobility and other supporting goals will be of great

99、 benefit in promoting the use of EVs,the increase in the use of EVs is still not widespread as promotion of the use of EVs in Thailand is in its early stages.In 2021,Thailand recorded the highest sales of battery electric vehicles(BEVs)at 40,710 units,while total ICE vehicle sales exceeded 800,000 u

100、nits,so the proportion of EVs is still not very high.Sustainable Energy Transition Road Maps at the local level,developed by the Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific(ESCAP),have therefore emphasized the importance of accelerating the transition to EVs.It was also found that the ma

101、rket price of EVs will decline due to the soaring growth of the Thai EV market,thus the drive to transition to e-mobility at different levels will have to depend on an understanding of the technology options and the economic feasibility of switching from ICEs to EVs.At the same time,regulations and

102、standards,monetary policy and an infrastructure policy framework to support the development of an EV ecosystem must be prepared.ESCAP therefore recognizes the importance of supporting the Thai government through the Department of Alternative Energy Development and Efficiency(DEDE)of the Ministry of

103、Energy to conduct an in-depth study to analyse and assess the potential of EV technology and to identify challenges and opportunities in the use of public EVs in land transportation.The study analyses the situation regarding the use of EVs in selected provinces with expert technical support.1.2 Proj

104、ect ObjectivesTo conduct a study to analyse the capacity,challenges and opportunities of EV development for the land public transportation sector in four provinces in Thailand,namely Khon Kaen,Chiang Mai,Phuket and Chonburi(Pattaya).The objectives of the project consist of:31.Introduction1)reviewing

105、 and analyzing an overview of public transport structures,opportunities,challenges,obstacles and possibilities for the development of EVs in the targeted areas;2)identifying routes and types of transportation systems that have the potential to be upgraded to EVs in the target areas;and3)formulating

106、policy recommendations to promote the use of EVs,as well as identifying ways to spur an increase in the use of EVs in the public transportation sector.1.3 Implementation PlanItem 1:Preliminary workshops and preparations for the study1)Develop a roadmap,including methodology,action plan,list of stake

107、holders,etc.,to ensure that the project can be completed successfully.2)Take opinions on the roadmap from DEDE and ESCAP and use them for improvements.3)Consult stakeholders in the four provinces during the initial workshops on methodology and plans and report to them the expected results and benefi

108、ts from the project.4)Identify challenges and opportunities related to the promotion of EVs in the public transport sector in the four selected provinces,giving importance to tourist attractions and community sites.Item 2:Analytical study1)Using the methodology developed in Part 1,the following anal

109、ytical studies were conducted.(1)Secondary data was studied on policies,technologies,business models,regulatory problems etc.in relation to the promotion of EVs for public transportation.Both the use of new EVs and the feasibility of replacing ICEs with electric ones(EV Conversion)should be consider

110、ed.(2)Data was collected from transportation agencies(both provincial and national)and vehicle operators.(3)Questionnaires for interviews with stakeholders were prepared.(4)Stakeholders were interviewed(approximately 10 per category of public transport),including policymakers,educational institution

111、s,the private sector,vehicle operators,regulatory agencies,manufacturers,traders and technicians(for converted EVs).2)Data was analysed and a draft report of the results of the study was arranged.3)Opinions on the study from DEDE and ESCAP were used to improve the report of the results of the study.

112、Item 3:Review of the results of the study and organization of meetings to hear the opinions of stakeholders.1)4 stakeholder consultation workshops in the provinces were planned.2)Data from the workshops was compiled and analysed to present the results of the study and summaries of key data.3)Feedbac

113、k from the workshops was gathered and used to improve the study report.(Item 2)Item 4:Finalization of the report and public launch1)Collect opinions from DEDE and ESCAP on the final report.2)Incorporate opinions and suggestions to improve the final report.3)Plan an official event to disseminate the

114、results of the study.4)Prepare a presentation on key findings of the study to DEDE and ESCAP for use in proposals to disseminate the results of the study.Chapter2:Electric Vehicle Promotion in Thailand2.Electric Vehicle Promotion in Thailand42.1 Electric Vehicle Policies and Targets in ThailandThe N

115、ational Electric Vehicle Policy Committee has set guidelines for the promotion of electric vehicles(EVs)in accordance with the 3030 policy,with the goal of zero emission vehicles(ZEVs)constituting at least 30 per cent of total vehicle production by 2030.The details are shown in Table 2-1.The Thai go

116、vernment stepped up its measures with the announcement of the BEV policy of reducing the excise tax on BEVs from 8 per cent to 2 per cent and the excise tax on electric battery pickup trucks to 0 per cent,together with a subsidy of 70,000-150,000 baht per unit given to buyers of BEVs,as detailed in

117、Table 2-2.2.2 Electric Vehicle Investment Promotion Plan in ThailandThe EV promotion policy in Thailand covers all types of vehicles and includes taxes and subsidies for each type of vehicle.To support Thailand as a production base for the EV industry,there is a plan to promote the support of EVs in

118、 Thailand.Details are as shown in Table 2-3.52.Electric Vehicle Promotion in ThailandTargetVehicle TypeAnnual Estimated Number of Zero-Emission Vehicles 202520302035UsePassengercars/Pick-ups225,000(30%)440,000(50%)1,154,000(100%)Motorcycles360,000(20%)650,000(40%)1,800,000(100%)Buses18,000(20%)33,00

119、0(35%)83,000(100%)Tuk-tuk500(85%)2,200(100%)2,800(100%)Boats130(12%)480(35%)1,800(100%)Rail transport620(70%)850(85%)1,170(100%)ProductionPassengercars/Pick-ups225,000(10%)725,000(30%)1,350,000(50%)Motorcycles360,000(20%)675,000(30%)1,850,000(70%)Buses18,000(35%)34,000(50%)84,000(85%)Tuk-tuk500(85%)

120、2,200(100%)2,800(100%)Boats130(12%)480(35%)1,800(100%)Rail transport620(100%)850(100%)1,170(100%)CategoryBattery CapacitySubsidyTax Benefit(%)Passenger cars(Price22mbaht)10-30kWh70,000minus 230kWh150,000minus 2Pick-ups(Price22mbaht)30kWh150,0000Table 2-1 Thailands zero-emission vehicle targets for a

121、ll vehicle types 3030 policy,National Electric Vehicle Policy Committee ReportTable 2-2 Battery Electric Vehicle Promotion PolicySource:Secretariat of The House of Representatives(2021).Source:Thaipublica(2022).6Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces

122、of Thailand2.3 Excise Tax Structure for Electric Vehicles in ThailandExcise tax is a state levy on luxury goods which is used as revenue for other forms of national development.Motor vehicles are considered a luxury item on which excise taxes have been imposed for a long time.As EV technology has le

123、ss impact on the environment than internal combustion vehicles,the government has used the mechanism of excise taxes in accordance with the structure shown in Table 2-4 to help support the transition to EVs,along with the following measures.Category of EVPolicyBEV Price 2.0m bahtReduceimportdutyonCo

124、mpletelyBuilt-UpVehicles(CBUs)andBEVstoa40percentmaximum(2022-2023).Reduceexcisetaxfrom8percentto2percent(2022-2025).70,000bahtpervehiclesubsidyforBEV30kWh(2022-2025).BEV Price 2.0-7.0m bahtReduceimportdutyonCBUsandBEVstoa20percentmaximum(2022-2023).Reduceexcisetaxfrom8percentto2percent(2022-2025).B

125、attery Electric Pick-upsReduceexcisetaxto0percent(2022-2025).150,000bahtpervehiclesubsidyforBatteryElectricPick-ups200g/km34/24(35/25)36/26(35/25)38/28(35/25)200 g/km4/7/12(17)5/8/13(17)23253,000cc50/403,250cc5050PHEVBEV2FCBVDC PHEVBEV1FCEVPPVPHEVJan 2026Jan 2030Jan 2022Jan 2026Jan 2026Jan 2022-2035

126、Jan 2022Jan 2026Jan 2022Jan 2026Jan 2022ER80kmorOiltank45L5(15)5(20)2(8)2(10)1(5)5(15/17)0(10)2(10)0(5)1(5)10ER45L10(15)10(20)3000 cc30Table 2-4 Proposed new vehicle excise tax structureSource:Excise Department(2023).Notes:1 Need to install at least 2 of 6 ADAS.2 Need to install at least 4 of 6 ADAS

127、.3 Need to install at least 1 of 6 ADAS.PPV:Pick-Up Passenger Vehicle DC:Double Cab ER:Electric Rangebecome an EV production base.This will promote and incentivize the use of environmentally friendly EVs,help to stimulate the countrys overall EV manufacturing economy,and help reduce CO2 and PM 2.5 e

128、missions.Under this announcement,those who purchased a private passenger car with no more than 7 seats between 1 October 2022 and 30 September 2025 will be entitled to a tax reduction of 80 per cent for a period of 1 year from the start of first year of the car purchase as shown in Table 2-5.8Challe

129、nges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of Thailand2.4 Guidelines for Supporting Converted Electric Vehicles in ThailandIn a 2022 meeting the Policy Working Group on Converted EVs and Energy Storage Systems in the Committee on National Security,Border Affair

130、s,National Strategy and National Reform of the House of Representatives reported the results of a study on proposed guidelines to support the creation of an EV conversion industry.The guidelines for support are given in Table 2-6.Vehicle weight(kg)Annual tax rate(baht)Annual EV tax rate with support

131、(baht)50015030501-75030060751-100450901001-12508001601,250-1,7001,0002001,501-1,5001,3002601,751-2,0001,6003202,001-2,5001,9003802,501-3,0002,2004403,001-3,5002,4004803,501-4,0002,6005204,001-4,5002,8005604,501-5,0003,0006005,001-6,0003,2006406,001-7,0003,400680Over7,0013,200720Annual tax on private

132、 electric motorcycle is usually collected at 50bahtpervehicle,leavingataxof 1 bahtTable 2-5 Annual EV tax rate with supportsource:AUTOSPINN(2023).92.Electric Vehicle Promotion in Thailandsource:Secretariat of The House of Representatives(2022).GroupFinancial Support MeasuresNon-Financial Support Mea

133、suresJuristic persons who convert petrol vehicles to electric(Converted Vehicles).1.Importdutyexemptionwithin5yearsfor9items(batteries,tractionmotors,aircompressors,BMS,DCU,on-boardchargers,PCUinverters,DC/DCconvertersandreductiongears)andcomponentsoftheseitems.1.Open a conversion garagewithacertifi

134、catetoget a tax deduction2.Statesupportfortraining.2.Excise tax exemption for batteries within 5 years.3.Tax and registration fee reduction.4.Subsidizethecostoftestingandinspectionforregistration.5.Statesubsidyfor50percentforEVConversiontraining(Up-skill,Re-skill)6.Supportinvestmentinnecessarytoolsa

135、ndequipmentusedinmodificationsitesatnotmorethan1mbaht/site approved by the designated agency7.Supportinvestmentinnecessarytoolsandequipmentusedininspectionagenciescertifiedforconversionstandardsatnotthan1m baht/site approved by the designated agency.1.200 per cent of training expenses can be deducte

136、d from tax.1.Subsidizethecostofconversionby50percent(alltypesofmotorvehicles).2.Subsidizethecostofbatteriesusedintheproductionofgeneral-purposemodifiedEVsandmodifiedcommercialEVs produced in the country according to battery size within 5 years-3-10kWh18,000baht-11-30kWh70,000baht-31-50kWh150,000baht

137、-51-100kWh200,000baht-101-200kWh400,000baht-201-300kWh600,000baht-301-400kWh800,000baht-401-500kWh1,000,000baht3.Subsidizeinsurancecosts4.Supportforgovernmentbankstoissueloansonspecialterms,includinginterest,repaymentperiodandinterest-freeperiod(graceperiod).5.Subsidizeexpresswaytollcosts.6.Establis

138、hapolicyforgovernmentbankstosharetheburdenofconversion costs by promoting battery leasing businesses.1.Setconditionsforenvironmentally and culturally sensitive areas and tourist points by allowing only vehicles with no emissions are allowed to enter the area(Zero EmissionZones).2 Require government

139、agencies to convert at least 50 per cent of vehicles in service into EVs within two years.3.Allow government officialswhouseconvertedEVs to charge their vehicles atthegovernmentofficesto which they belong.Basic electric transmission and charging infrastructure.1.Supportthecostofelectricitychargingby

140、chargingelectricityperunitas low priority with a grace period of 5 years.2.Supporttheinstallationcostofhomeelectricchargers3.EncourageprivateagenciestoinstallchargingstationsinparkingareasandenableserviceproviderstoallowusersofmodifiedEVs free charging and to deduct electricity costs from taxes.1.Ad

141、just the system to allowmodifiedEVs to use charging stations in public areas.Table 2-6 Measures to promote converted electric vehicles according to target groupChapter3:Public Transport Sector in Thailand and the 4 Target Provinces3.Public Transport Sector in Thailand and the 4 Target Provinces103.1

142、 Target ProvincesThis study selected a group of provinces with the potential to switch from internal combustion engines(ICEs)to electric vehicles(EVs)in public systems.The provinces selected for the survey are Chiang Mai,Khon Kaen,Chonburi and Phuket.These four provinces have potential because they

143、are travel hubs or tourist destinations,and some are both.Chiang Mai is the fifth most visited province in Thailand(2022),generating revenue of 60 billion baht(Ministry of Tourism and Sports(2022).It has notable public vehicles in the form of non-fixed-route song thaeo,known as the Chiang Mai rot da

144、eng(red buses),which are unique and frequently used to promote tourism within the province.As it is the top tourist destination in the northern region,Chiang Mai has the potential for public transport operators to switch from ICEs to EVs.But the mountainous topography of most tourist attractions and

145、 in general is a barrier to the use of EVs.It is therefore an appropriate choice as the target province of the northern region to survey the challenges of transition.Khon Kaen province is a hub for travel to and from nearby provinces and includes centres of education and public health.Khon Kaen prov

146、ince is planned to be a province in the development of smart cities,a plan which supports the EV industry,for example,the prototype factory for electric battery production in Khon Kaen University(Khon Kaen Provincial Office,2023).With all these factors,Khon Kaen in the Northeast has potential as a t

147、arget province in exploring the challenges of transition to EVs.113.Public Transport Sector in Thailand and the 4 Target ProvincesChonburi province is the main transit province to the provinces of the eastern region and also has a tourist destination,namely Pattaya City,so that in 2023,Chonburi prov

148、ince had a revenue of approximately 100 billion baht from tourism,of which 75 billion baht was revenue from foreign tourists.Most of the vehicles that serve tourists are taxis that operate between Suvarnabhumi Airport and tourist attractions in the province.In addition,within the province,there are

149、various types of vehicles that serve local people,such as song thaeo,motorcycle taxis and tuk-tuk.Due to the variety in the type of public transportation in the province,Chonburi has an advantage from switching from ICEs to EVs in the future and is a short distance from Bangkok.Therefore,there is a

150、high chance that there will be a source of funding from the centre.Phuket province has the highest tourism revenue in Thailand(excluding Bangkok),with revenue of approximately 190 billion baht in 2022.Phuket has a variety of public transport systems to accommodate the large number of tourists each y

151、ear,such as local public buses called rot pho thong,taxis and small four-wheeled vehicles which make it easier for tourists to plan their work and promote tourism in the province.It can be seen that Phuket has the potential to change public transportation from ICEs to EVs due to the advantage of the

152、 volume of tourists and tourist attractions within the province.3.2DefinitionandClassificationofPublic Vehicles3.2.1 DefinitionsandStandardsAccording to the definitions of the Department of Land Transport,passenger vehicles can be categorized by use as follows:Fixed-route passenger vehicle means a v

153、ehicle used to transport passengers for a fare along a specified route.Non-fixed-route passenger vehicle means a vehicle used to transport passengers for a fare not along a specified route Private passenger vehicle means a vehicle used to transport passengers for private hire or business with 12 or

154、more passenger seats and a vehicle weight of more than 2,200 kg.Small vehicle means a vehicle used to transport passengers or goods for a fare along a specified route with a vehicle weight of no more than 4,000 kg.7 classes of passenger vehicles can be categorized by their characteristics as shown i

155、n Table 3-13.2.2 Type of Vehicle by RegistrationThe types and appearance of public vehicles for hire according to the 1979 Vehicle Act can be classified as in Table 3 2.Vehicles for hire under this Act are mostly non-fixed-route vehicles.ImageStandardDetailsMeaningSeatsStandingPreparation of food an

156、d drinkPR sound systemLuggage areaToilet1 ASpecialair-conditioned bus(separatedriverscab)-x/1 BSpecialair-conditioned bus-x/2 AAir-conditioned bus30 xDDDx2 BAir-conditioned bus30/xDDx2 CAir-conditioned bus21-30/DDDx2 DAir-conditioned bus21-30/xDDx2 EAir-conditioned bus30 xx-xx3 BNon-air-conditioned

157、bus30 xx-/x3 CNon-air-conditioned bus21-30/x-xx3 DNon-air-conditioned bus21-30 xx-/x3 ENon-air-conditioned bus13-24D-D-3 FNon-air-conditioned bus12x-D-4 ADouble-deckerair-conditioned bus-x/4 BDouble-deckerair-conditioned bus-x/4 CDouble-deckerair-conditioned bus-xDD-x4 DDouble-deckerair-conditioned

158、bus-/xDDx4 EDouble-deckerair-conditioned bus-/xxx4 FDouble-deckernon-air-conditioned bus-/xD/x5 AArticulated air-conditioned bus-DDDDD5 BArticulated non-air-conditioned bus-DDDDD6 AArticulated air-conditioned bus-DDDDD6 BArticulated non-air-conditioned bus-DDDDD7 ASpecializedbus-source:Department of

159、 Land Transport(2023)Notes:/=Yes;x=No;D=Either;-=notspecified133.Public Transport Sector in Thailand and the 4 Target Provinces3.2.3 Types of Vehicle Registration The characteristics of vehicle license plates and classification codes according to the type of conveyance are determined by an Announcem

160、ent of the Department of Land Transport.This specifies the appearance,size,and colour of license plates.License plates used in fixed-route and non-fixed-route transportation have a background of yellow reflective material and black lettering;but non-fixed-route Class 2(e)(special minivans)have a bac

161、kground of white reflective material and blue lettering,and vehicles used for personal transportation have a background of white reflective material and black lettering,with a code indicating the vehicle type by mode of transportation,as shown in Table 3-3.3.2.4 Types of passenger vehicle Passenger

162、vehicles are classified according to the type of route or transportation route specified by the Department of Land Transport.The four categories are defined as follows:Type of vehicleDetailed characteristicsRo.Yo.6-Vehicleforhirecarryingnomorethan seven passengersRo.Yo.7Smallfour-wheeledvehicleforhi

163、reRo.Yo.8-three-wheeledvehicleforhire8.1Covered,twocompartments8.2Covered,tworows(song thaeo)Ro.Yo.17Publicmotorcycle Type 1 passenger vehicles refer to passenger vehicles with transportation routes within the Bangkok Metropolitan Municipality,city municipalities,town municipalities and contiguous a

164、reas.Type 2 passenger vehicles refer to passenger vehicles which operate routes between Bangkok and provinces in the regions.Type 3 passenger vehicles refer to passenger vehicles which operate routes between provinces or extend over provinces in the regions.Type 4 passenger vehicles refer to passeng

165、er vehicles which operate routes linking districts or provinces within provincial boundaries.3.3 Statistics on public passenger vehicles in the four target provincesThe statistics on vehicles registered in the four target provinces according to the 31 August 2023 Table 3-2 Types of public vehicles f

166、or hire classified according to the 1979 Vehicle Actsource:Department of Land Transport(2023)14Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandType of vehicleLicense plate characteristicsImage1.Private passenger vehicle with no more than seven seats

167、(Ro.Yo.1)Whitereflectiveplatewithblacklettering2.Private passenger vehicle with more than seven seats(Ro.Yo.2)Whitereflectiveplatewithdarkbluelettering3.Private passenger vehicle with initial number 40-49 with all vehicle standardsWhitereflectiveplatewithraisedblackletteringconsistingof1.ThelettersT

168、HAILAND2.Province code3.44-49 Vehicle type code between 44-494.Hyphenbetweennumbers5.Registration number 0001-99996.Symbolwiththeletters7.Name of province4.Fixed-route passenger vehicle with initial number 10-19Yellowreflectiveplatewithraisedblackletteringconsistingof1.ThelettersTHAILAND2.Province c

169、ode3.Vehicle type code between 10-194.Hyphenbetweennumbers5.Registration number 0001-99996.Symbolwiththeletters7.Name of province5.Non-fixed-routepassengervehicle with initial number 30-35Yellowreflectiveplatewithraisedblackletteringconsistingof1.ThelettersTHAILAND2.Province code3.Vehicle type code

170、4.Hyphenbetweennumbers5.Registration number 0001-99996.Symbolwiththeletters7.Name of provinceTable 3-3 Vehicle registration type detailsreport of the Department of Land Transport can be seen in Table 3-4.From Table 3-4 it is found that in Chiang Mai has mostly non-fixed-route song thaeo that provide

171、 services within the province for tourists.As Khon Kaen is a province that is a transportation hub in the northeast from where one can travel to other provinces,there are more fixed-route buses than other kinds.Chonburi,because it is a tourist attraction,has a relatively large number of motorcycle t

172、axis that serve both tourists and residents and provide a service over short distances which the public prefers.Phuket has different types of vehicles compared to other provinces,i.e.Ro.Yo.7,small 4-wheeled vehicles for hire that serve foreign tourists.It also has the largest number of sightseeing s

173、ervice vehicles and non-fixed-route vehicles compared to the other three provinces.153.Public Transport Sector in Thailand and the 4 Target Provincessource:Autospinn.2022Type of vehicleLicense plate characteristicsImage6.Specialcategorynon-fixed-route minivan with initial number 36Whitereflectivepla

174、tewithraisedblueletteringconsistingof1.ThelettersTHAILAND2.Province code3.Vehicle type code 364.Hyphenbetweennumbers5.Registration number 0001-99996.Symbolwiththeletters7.Name of province7.Smallsizevehiclecarryingpassengers and goods with initial number 20-29Yellowreflectiveplatewithraisedblacklette

175、ringconsistingof1.ThelettersTHAILAND2.Province code3.Vehicle type code between 20-294.Hyphenbetweennumbers5.Registration number 0001-99996.Symbolwiththeletters7.Name of province8.Tourist service and hire vehicle such as airport limousineGreenreflectiveplatewithraisedwhitelettering3.4 Analysis of Fou

176、r Target Provinces Chiang MaiChiang Mai is the main city of the northern region and a centre of commerce,industry and transportation.Chiang Mai therefore has many lines of communication.It is the province with the most song thaeo vehicles,with as many as roughly 3,300 non-fixed-route song thaeo(Chia

177、ng Mai rot daeng),which form a transportation network which is notably unique to Chiang Mai and can be seen everywhere on the streets for convenient use.Non-fixed-route song thaeo are a type of vehicle that is available only in Chiang Mai.Non-fixed-route song thaeo are like small song thaeo taxis fo

178、r hire that serve the city of Chiang Mai.The majority of customers are tourists.They provide agreed fixed-fee services and run to various tourist spots such as Doi Suthep,Chiang Mai Zoo,Doi Inthanon and Wat Phra That Si Chom Thong.However,the Covid crisis caused decreasing numbers of tourists,as wel

179、l as higher fuel costs.As a result,a study was conducted on the conversion of rot daeng into EVs,which were tested going uphill(Doi Suthep)to prove the capacity of converted EVs.Chiang Mais public transportation system is still very limited.Although in 2015 the Chiang Mai rot daeng were reorganized

180、into fixed-route bus services to solve the problem of fares,the reaction was not as it should have been because the operators saw that chartering or running a non-fixed-route service was more profitable(Review Chiang Mai,2015).In addition,there are other public transportation systems available,such

181、as motorcycle taxis,which operate at stations or public service points such as Chiang Mai Arcade Bus Terminal and Chang Phueak Bus Station,and most of them operate only during the day.It has also been found that there has been a shift from public motorcycle taxis to electronic motorcycle taxis due t

182、o the impact of Covid where consumers turned to electronic motorcycle taxis instead.Taxis are considered another alternative in public transportation,and using a taxi service is more convenient and takes less travel time than 16Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in

183、 Four Provinces of ThailandDetailsChiang MaiKhon KaenChonburiPhuketA.Total vehicles according to the Vehicle ActRo.Yo.6-Vehiclesforhirecarryingnomorethan7passengers117284525538-Ordinaryperson793490169-Juristicperson38250435369Ro.Yo.7Smallfour-wheeledvehiclesforhire-514Ro.Yo.8-Three-wheeledvehiclesfo

184、rhire(tuk-tuk)1,072395812-Ro.Yo.Sightseeingservicevehicles(tourtaxis)6-52,020Ro.Yo.17Publicmotorcycles312887,758969B.Total vehicles according to the Land Transport ActFixed route1,8151,3442,580364 Type 1147833586938 Type 2 3338521431 Type 31848318770 Type 42724261,305225International22-Unspecified12

185、135-Non-fixedroute3,3003043,9266,992Private337386546174Totals5,452 2,034 7,052 12,109 Table 3-4 Department of Land Transport statistics on public passenger vehicles in the four target provincesother types of public transportation.Taxis in Chiang Mai mainly provide services at the airport and departm

186、ent stores,focusing on foreign tourist customers.They are large vehicles to accommodate foreign tourists.Fares are agreed as a lump sum.In the past,Chiang Mai has also had an electric tuk-tuk project(ETukTuk,2017).However,some of the drivers who participated in the project reported that the electric

187、 tuk-tuk still do not meet the service requirements regarding range,power,design and charge times.But drivers are still interested in electric tuk-tuk,if these shortcomings can be corrected.Khon KaenKhon Kaen province is the transportation hub of the Northeast region for connections to neighbouring

188、provinces.Most trips are long distance from transportation points such as the airport or bus stations.The most common type of service is taxis and song thaeo.Most of those using the services are local residents and from neighbouring provinces returning to their hometowns.Khon Kaens taxis are small v

189、ehicles available for hire in two ways.Private taxis are vehicles with metered fares available at bus stations,the airport,and shopping malls.There are also company taxis that serve the bus stations where they have to pay a parking fee(queue)to get more passengers.They charge an agreed lump sum.Song

190、 thaeo operate on routes under the supervision of Khon Kaen City Municipality,with customers being students or people from the province.They are mostly parked at Khon Kaen bus stations.Minibuses are another form of public transportation in Khon Kaen province.A group of private companies stepped in t

191、o revive the minibus business that had stopped functioning in order to have more public transportation for the people.Minibuses operate along various routes,including bus stations,the airport,shopping malls and around the city.173.Public Transport Sector in Thailand and the 4 Target Provinces Chonbu

192、riChonburi province is a gateway to other provinces in eastern Thailand.There are several famous tourist attractions located there including the countrys major tourist attraction of Pattaya.In addition to tourism,it is also an economically important province,both in commerce and industry.Most taxis

193、in Chonburi charge an agreed lump sum fare.They provide services at the various major tourist spots of Chonburi province such as Pattaya beach,shopping malls,etc.For foreign tourists,the most common service is from Suvarnabhumi Airport to tourist spots.Most of the vehicles are large with seven seats

194、 to serve foreign tourists.Motorcycle taxis are another popular option,most of which run short distances,similar to the motorcycle taxi service in Bangkok.The majority of customers are students,Chonburi residents and tourists.The service is available at tourist spots such as Pattaya,Bali Hai point,C

195、hom Thian beach and shopping malls.There are also other public transportation systems to choose from,such fixed-route song thaeo,which provide transportation services within Chonburi city.These song thaeo are classified into categories 1 and 4,and are mainly used by students,shoppers and tourists an

196、d serve shopping malls and schools.There is no tuk-tuk service in Pattaya city;it cannot run because it overlaps with concessions.They run only outside Pattaya in Si Racha,Sattahip and Bang Lamung.PhuketPhuket is a province in southern Thailand and the largest island in Thailand.With attractive beac

197、hes and waters,it attracts a lot of tourists.Public transportation systems in Phuket have continuously developed to accommodate both residents and tourists,so it is another province that offers a variety of travel options.Phuket taxis offer two types of services.Sightseeing service vehicles(limousin

198、e taxis)and passenger vehicles for hire with no more than seven seats(regular taxis).Limousine taxis offer a flat-rate service can be found everywhere in the province.In the past,the vehicles providing this service were the private vehicles of local people.Later,the Phuket Provincial Transport Offic

199、e wanted to set up regulations and therefore had them registered as sightseeing service vehicles(green license plates).As a result of the change in regulations,Phuket registered the greatest number of sightseeing service vehicles in Thailand with 2,200 vehicles.However,due to the COVID-19 pandemic,t

200、he number of registrations for this type of vehicle has decreased by as much as 20 per cent.The second type of taxi,regular taxis,are available at major locations such as the airport and large shopping malls,which appeared after sightseeing service vehicles,with fares based on the meter according to

201、 distance.Most customers who use the service include tourists at the airport and people at public transportation points in the province.Although transportation in Phuket has several available options,rot pho thong are the vehicles identified with Phuket in attracting tourists.They are song thaeo wit

202、h a history of more than 50 years,serving routes served including Patong rot pho thong,Kamala rot pho thong,Karon rot pho thong,Kata rot pho thong,Makham Bay rot pho thong,Nai Han Beach rot pho thong,Chalong Bay rot pho thong,Bang Rong rot pho thong,and Sarasin Bridge rot pho thong with fares rangin

203、g from 30 to 50 baht.Apart from private vehicles for hire,local government also serves routes in Phuket Town for local residents.Motorcycle taxis are not very common in Phuket in tourist spots.Most of them serve villages,communities,and provincial transport points,as well as throughout the island,su

204、ch as bus stations to Patong BeachThere are also other options available,such as fixed-route buses,which can be found at the airport,with the majority of customers being foreign tourists.They follow clear routes,such as between the airport and Patong Beach.Currently,some companies are interested in

205、bringing electric fixed-route buses into service and are currently in the phase of testing service routes.More than 514 small four-wheeled pick-ups(kapo)will start operating in Phuket in the evening at around 3 p.m.,most of which serve the Patong Beach area.These small four-wheeled pick-ups offer sh

206、ort-distance services such as to hotel beaches,catering mostly to foreign tourists.Chapter4:Survey and Data Analysis Guidelines for the Four Target Provinces4.Survey and Data Analysis Guidelines for the Four Target Provinces184.1 Assessment of the Potential to Reduce Carbon Dioxide EmissionsThis stu

207、dy applied the principles of national greenhouse gas(GHG)accounting.This includes Measurement,Reporting and Verification(MRV)to assess the reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by using a bottom-up approach to collect the necessary data from public transportation in the target provinces as well as f

208、actors that affect carbon dioxide emissions for assessment,including:1.activity information,i.e.the transportation of passengers or goods(PKT,TKT);2.modal Share of transportation(here defined as 1);3.energy intensity,i.e.the proportion of energy use of various forms of fuel to the revenue generated

209、from the implementation of activities using energy;and4.carbon Intensity,i.e.the amount of carbon dioxide emissions per unit of energy consumption of that fuel.This can be expressed in the form of an equation:194.Survey and Data Analysis Guidelines for the Four Target Provinces where E=Carbon dioxid

210、e emissions of each vehicle type(tCO2eq/year)A=Vehicle activity of each type(km/year)EI=Energy intensity(MJ/km)CI=Carbon dioxide emission intensity (tCO2eq/MJ)v=Types of public vehiclessuch that H=Calorific value(MJ/l)(for NGV:km/kg)00 F=Fuel economy(FE)(km/l)(for NGV:km/kg)Source:CI referred from T

211、hailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization(Public Organization)(2019).H referred from Thailand Greenhouse Gas Management Organization(Public Organization)(2019)and DEDE(2020).4.2CostBenefitEstimatesofInvestmentThe value of the investment can be assessed by estimating the Total Cost of Ownership(

212、TCO)of electric vehicles(EVs)in the public land transport sector through data collected on capital costs,such as the procurement of EVs,fuel consumption,maintenance,etc.to analyse the Net Present Value(NPV)and compare the cost-effectiveness of internal ICEs and each type of EV after 10 years of use,

213、which can be expressed in the form of the following equation:where NPV=Net Present Value Ct=Cost of EV at year t r=Discount rate t=Year4.3 Data Survey GuidelinesThe survey was designed through preparation of a target area survey by means of meetings to obtain basic information in each province with

214、the relevant parties,including government agencies,the private sector and stakeholders.A questionnaire was then designed in accordance with the data needed,incorporating comments and suggestions from the survey preparation meetings.Once the questionnaire was prepared,the survey was conducted with 10

215、0 informants per target province,including both business operators and public vehicle drivers within each province.Once the data was obtained,an analysis was carried out before presenting the results to the stakeholders in the four target provinces in order to obtain useful suggestions and opinions,

216、as detailed in Figure 4-1.Figure 4-1 Data survey plan Preparatory meetingsin the fieldDesign ofquestionnaireSurvey of target provinces-Chiang Mai-Khon Kaen-Chonburi-Phuket Presentation of results to stakeholders20Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces

217、 of Thailand4.3.1 Data Items for AnalysisThe data items used in the analysis include vehicle travel range,fuel consumption and expenses,in order to calculate carbon dioxide emissions according to MRV and TCO as shown in Table 4-1MRV&TCOCategorySubcategorySource of data(level 1)Source of data(level 2

218、)Tuk-tukTaxiSong thaeo(fixed route)Song thaeo(non-fixed route)Minibus(fixed route)Bus(fixed route)Bus(non-fixed route)Motorcycle taxiMinivan(fixed route)Minivan(non-fixed route)ActivityVehicle travel dataDistance travelled InterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXActivityVehicle travel dataTravel timeInterviewOwnerX

219、XOXOOXXOXActivityVehicle travel dataStart-finishpointsInterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXActivityVehicle travel dataVehicle routeInterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXActivityVehicle travel dataNumber of daily tripsInterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXActivityFuel consumption dataCostoffillingfueltank(baht)forhowmanykmInterviewOwnerOOXO

220、XXOOXOActivityFuel consumption dataNumber of times a day tanksarefilledInterviewOwnerOOXOXXOOXOActivityPassenger vehicle dataNumber of vehicles in provinceStatisticsDLTOOOOOOOOOOActivityPassenger vehicle dataNumber of routes per vehicle category(i.e.bus,minibusand song thaeo)SurveyWebsiteXXOXOOXXOXA

221、ctivityPassenger vehicle dataNumber of routes per vehicle category(i.e.bus,minibus,tuk-tuk,taxiand song thaeo)InterviewDLTXXOXOOXXOXActivityPassenger vehicle dataNumber routes per category of vehicle(i.e.bus,minibus,tuk-tuk,taxi,and song thaeo)InterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXActivityPassenger vehicle dataNu

222、mber of vehicles per route per categorySurveyWebsiteXXOXOOXXOXActivityPassenger vehicle dataNumber of vehicles per route per categoryInterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXTable 4-1 Data items to be analysed by public transport categoryX:not surveyed O:surveyed214.Survey and Data Analysis Guidelines for the Four T

223、arget ProvincesMRV&TCOCategorySubcategorySource of data(level 1)Source of data(level 2)Tuk-tukTaxiSong thaeo(fixed route)Song thaeo(non-fixed route)Minibus(fixed route)Bus(fixed route)Bus(non-fixed route)Motorcycle taxiMinivan(fixed route)Minivan(non-fixed route)ActivityPassenger vehicle dataNumber

224、of vehicles per route per categoryInterviewDLTXXOXOOXXOXEnergy IntensityVehicle operation dataDistance travelledInterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXEnergy IntensityVehicle operation dataStart-finishpointsInterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXEnergy IntensityVehicle operation dataVehicle routesInterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXEnergy I

225、ntensityVehicle operation dataNumber of daily tripsInterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXEnergy IntensityFuel energy consumption dataRate of fuel consumption(km/L)InterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOEnergy IntensityFuel energy consumption dataFueltankcapacity(L)InterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOEnergy IntensityFuel energy consumption

226、dataDistance from fulltanktoemptytankInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOEnergy IntensityFuel energy consumption dataNumber of times a day tanksarefilledInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOEnergy IntensityFuel energy consumption dataCostoffillingfueltank(baht)forhowmanykmInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOCarbon IntensityFuel energy

227、consumption dataType of fuelInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective Costs(TCO)Cost of new EVCost of EV for public transportation sectorSurveyWebsiteOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective Costs(TCO)Cost of conversionCost of conversion from ICE to EV for all categoriesSurveyWebsiteOOOOOOOOOOV

228、ehicle Owners Prospective Costs(TCO)Cost of electricityCost of charging stationSurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective Costs(TCO)Cost of electricityCost of chargingSurveyWebsiteOOOOOOOOOO22Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandMRV

229、&TCOCategorySubcategorySource of data(level 1)Source of data(level 2)Tuk-tukTaxiSong thaeo(fixed route)Song thaeo(non-fixed route)Minibus(fixed route)Bus(fixed route)Bus(non-fixed route)Motorcycle taxiMinivan(fixed route)Minivan(non-fixed route)Vehicle Owners Prospective Costs(TCO)Cost of maintenanc

230、e and repairCost of maintenance and repair of ICE(annual)InterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective Costs(TCO)Cost of maintenance and repairCost of maintenance and repair of ICE(annual)SurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective Costs(TCO)Cost of maintenance and repairCost of maintenanc

231、e and repair of EV(annual)SurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective BenefitsReduction of energy consumption(energy efficiency)Costoffillingfueltankof public vehicles(baht)forhowmanykmInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective BenefitsReduction of energy consumption(better energy effic

232、iency)Cost of charging public vehicles(baht)forhowmanykmSurveyWebsiteOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective BenefitsReduction of energy consumption(better energy efficiency)Cost of charging public vehicles(baht)forhowmanykmSurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective BenefitsSubsidyandtax exemptio

233、nPeriod of time needed for tax supportInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective BenefitsSubsidyandtax exemptionMaximumaffordable cost of EVInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOVehicle Owners Prospective BenefitsSubsidyandtax exemptionMaximumaffordable cost of converting ICE to EV InterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOO

234、OProspective GovernmentCostsSubsidyCost/period of support/number of peopleSurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOProspective GovernmentCostsSubsidyType of vehicle supportedSurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOProspective GovernmentCostsTax reductionAppropriate tax reduction measuresSurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOProspective GovernmentCosts

235、Investment in charging infrastructureCost of charging stationSurveyReportOOOOOOOOOO234.Survey and Data Analysis Guidelines for the Four Target ProvincesMRV&TCOCategorySubcategorySource of data(level 1)Source of data(level 2)Tuk-tukTaxiSong thaeo(fixed route)Song thaeo(non-fixed route)Minibus(fixed r

236、oute)Bus(fixed route)Bus(non-fixed route)Motorcycle taxiMinivan(fixed route)Minivan(non-fixed route)Prospective GovernmentCostsInvestment in charging infrastructureCost of distribution networkofcharging stationsSurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOProspective GovernmentBenefitsReduction of fuel consumptionData on

237、current transportation sector EV energy consumption SurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOProspective GovernmentBenefitsReduction of fuel consumptionData on current ICE energy consumption in transportation sector InterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOProspective GovernmentBenefitsGHGemissionreduction(carbon trading,e.g.,carbonta

238、x,carboncredits)Transport sector vehicle usage data for GHGemissioncalculationsSurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOProspective GovernmentBenefitsGHGemissions reduction(carbon trading,e.g.carbon tax,carboncredits)Transport sector vehicle usage data forGHGemissions calculationsInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOProspective Go

239、vernmentBenefitsReduced health impact(willingness-to-pay)PM2.5impactassessment(WTPfromPM2.5dust)SurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOProspective GovernmentBenefitsReduced reliance on fossil fuels(increased energy security)Reduction of fossil fuel use in transport sectorSurveyReportOOOOOOOOOOConsideration ofModalSh

240、iftPassenger transport vehicle dataVehiclemakeInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOConsideration ofModalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataVehicle model/year of manufactureInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOConsideration ofModalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataYearofregistration or useful lifeStatisticsDLTOOOOOOOOOOC

241、onsideration ofModalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataYearoffirstregistration or useful lifeStatisticsDLTOOOOOOOOOOConsideration ofModalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataYearofregistration or useful lifeInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOO24Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Trans

242、port in Four Provinces of ThailandMRV&TCOCategorySubcategorySource of data(level 1)Source of data(level 2)Tuk-tukTaxiSong thaeo(fixed route)Song thaeo(non-fixed route)Minibus(fixed route)Bus(fixed route)Bus(non-fixed route)Motorcycle taxiMinivan(fixed route)Minivan(non-fixed route)Consideration ofMo

243、dalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataYearoffirstregistration or useful lifeInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOConsideration ofModalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataEngine condition(old/new)InterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOConsideration ofModalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataEngine sizeInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOO

244、OOConsideration ofModalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataMileageonodometerInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOConsideration ofModalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataVehicle registration numberInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOConsideration ofModalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataPassenger transport vehicle stan

245、dards(Mo1,Mo2,Mo3,Mo4)InterviewOwnerXXOOOOOOOOConsideration ofModalShiftVehicle operation dataVehicle category(category 1,2,3,4)InterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXConsideration ofModalShiftPassenger transport vehicle dataPassenger transport vehicle standards(Mo1,Mo2,Mo3,Mo4)StatisticsDLTXXOOOOOOOOConsideration

246、 ofModalShiftVehicle operation dataVehicle category(category 1,2,3,4)StatisticsDLTXXOXOOXXOXOthersFaresFare ratesSurveyWebsiteOOOOOOOOOOOthersFaresFare ratesInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOOthersOtherOther costsInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOOthersOtherTotal number of passenger seatsInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOOthersO

247、therAverage number of passengers(perjourney)InterviewOwnerXXOXOOXXOXOthersOtherAverage number of passengers(perday)InterviewOwnerOOXOXXOOXOOthersOtherInterest in changing from ICE to EVInterviewOwnerOOOOOOOOOOChapter5:Results of Survey and Data Analysis for the Four Target Provinces5.Results of Surv

248、ey and Data Analysis for the Four Target Provinces25From field visits to collect data in the four target provinces,namely Chiang Mai,Khon Kaen,Chonburi and Phuket,the results can be analysed by province and classified by vehicle type and use.5.1 Chiang Mai5.1.1 Sample GroupThe survey of public trans

249、port in Chiang Mai by category of interviewee and the nature of the service provided is shown in Tables 5-1 to 5-3.However,some of the data points obtained have unusually high values(outliers).Usually,if such values are found,they must be eliminated using statistical methods(standard deviation),but

250、because the data obtained is insufficient to use this statistical method,the study chose to exclude data points that were more than two times higher or lower than the average value,as these values were too high/low to be representative.5.1.2 Results of Carbon Dioxide Emission Estimates in the Public

251、 Transport Sector,Chiang MaiTable 5-4 and Figures 5-1 to 5-4 show the results of carbon dioxide emissions estimates in Chiang Mai.The fixed-route vehicles surveyed are song thaeo.The behaviour of song thaeo services in picking up passengers throughout a journey(with high passenger pick-up rates)and

252、their low speed,create wasteful rates of fuel consumption.This results in high carbon dioxide emissions at 14.83 tCO2eq/year.26Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandVehicle typeNumber(before)Number(after)Fixed route22 Song thaeo22Non-fixed

253、 route22 Song thaeo11 Taxi11Vehicle typeNumber(before)Number(after)Fixed route62 Song thaeo62Non-fixed route43 Song thaeo11 Tuk-tuk21 Taxi11Table 5-1 Number of transport operators surveyed in Chiang MaiTable 5-2 Number of drivers renting public transport vehicles surveyed in Chiang MaiTable 5-3 Numb

254、er of owners of public transport vehicles surveyed in Chiang MaiVehicle typeNumber(before)Number(after)Fixed route5261 Song thaeo4923 Fixed-route bus3-Non-fixed route7138Motorcycletaxi44 Tuk-tuk53 Taxi2614 Song thaeo3617In the non-fixed-route passenger vehicle sector,diesel-powered taxis were found

255、to have the highest carbon dioxide emissions.The reason for this is that they are large vehicles with seven seats suitable for serving tourists.The fuel consumption rate is 10.12 km/l,resulting in CO2 emissions similar to those of fixed-route song thaeo at 16.49 tCO2eq/year.Gasoline-powered taxis ha

256、ve the second highest carbon dioxide emissions after diesel taxis with a fuel consumption rate of 12.84 km/l and the highest passenger occupancy at 75,738 km/year,resulting in CO2 emissions of 13.20 tCO2eq/year.The“rot daeng”non-fixed-route song thaeo have carbon dioxide emissions of 7.63 275.Result

257、s of Survey and Data Analysis for the Four Target ProvincesTable 5-4 Estimated carbon dioxide emissions in public vehicles,Chiang MaiVehicle typeVKT*(km/year)PKT*(km-p/year)Fuel economy(FE)(km/l)Fuel consumption(FC)(l/100km)Energy intensity(MJ/km)Carbon dioxide emissions(tCO2eq/year)Fixed routeSong

258、thaeo(diesel)46,822527,4718.5511.704.2614.83Non-fixedrouteMotorcycletaxis(gasoline)49,27549,27538.352.610.822.87Tuk-tuk(LPG)43,34443,34411.948.372.236.10Taxi(gasoline)75,738151,47512.847.792.4513.20Taxi(diesel)61,602123,20410.129.883.6016.49Song thaeo(diesel)38,445115,33610.279.743.5510.14*Transport

259、 of passengers or goods(Vehicle Kilometres Travelled:VKT)*Passenger km per year(Passenger Kilometres Travelled:PKT)Notes-Results calculated on the average of each vehicle type.-Data points more than two times higher or lower than average are excluded for being higher/lower than representative data.-

260、PKTuses1forthenumberofnon-fixed-routepassengersfortuk-tuk,1 for motorcycle taxis,2 for taxis and 3 for red buses(song thaeo).Song thaeoMotorcycletaxisTuk-tukTaxis(gasoline)Taxis(diesel)Song thaeo020,00040,00060,00080,000VKT(km/Year)Vehicle typeFigure 5-1 Average Passenger Transport(VKT),Chiang MaiNo

261、tes-Results calculated on the average of each vehicle type.-Data points more than two times higher or lower than average are excluded for being higher/lower than representative data.-PKTuses1forthenumberofnon-fixed-routepassengersfortuk-tuk,1 for motorcycle taxis,2 for taxis and 3 for rot daeng(song

262、 thaeo)tCO2eq/year.On-the-ground observation showed that non-fixed-route song thaeo provide services that focus on tourists like taxis but will pick up and drop off tourists at various tourist spots in the province.Consequently,passenger occupancy rates are not high and fuel consumption is relativel

263、y good at 10.27 km/l,while tuk-tuk and motorcycle taxis have better fuel consumption,at 11.94 and 38.35 km/l respectively,or CO2 emissions at 6.10 and 2.87 tCO2eq/year,respectively.28Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandFigure 5-2 Average

264、 Passenger-Kilometres per Year(PKT),Chiang MaiFigure 5-3 Average fuel economy,Chiang MaiFigure 5-4 Average CO2 emissions,Chiang MaiNotes-Results calculated on the average of each vehicle type.-Data points more thantwo times higher or lower than average are excluded for being higher/lower than repres

265、entative data.-PKTuses1forthenumberofnon-fixed-routepassengersfortuk-tuk,1 for motorcycle taxis,2 for taxis and 3 for rot daeng(song thaeo).Notes-Results calculated on the average of each vehicle type.-Data points more than two times higher or lower than average is excluded for being higher/lower th

266、an representative data.-PKTuses1forthenumberofnon-fixed-routepassengersfortuk-tuk,1 for motorcycle taxis,2 for taxis and 3 for rot daeng(song thaeo)Notes-Results calculated on the average of each vehicle type.-Data points more than two times higher or lower than average is excluded for being higher/

267、lower than representative data.-PKTuses1forthenumberofnon-fixed-routepassengersfortuk-tuk,1 for motorcycle taxis,2 for taxis and 3 for rot daeng(song thaeo)Song thaeoMotorcycletaxisTuk-tukTaxis(gasoline)Taxis(diesel)Non-fixed-route song thaeo0100,000200,000300,000400,000500,000600,000PKT(km-p/Year)V

268、ehicle typeSong thaeoMotorcycletaxisTuk-tukTaxis(gasoline)Taxis(diesel)Non-fixed-routesong thaeo01020304050FE(km/l)Vehicle typeSong thaeoMotorcycletaxisTuk-tukTaxis(gasoline)Taxis(diesel)Non-fixed-routesong thaeo05101520Carbon dioxide(tCO2eq/year)Vehicle type295.Results of Survey and Data Analysis f

269、or the Four Target ProvincesFigure 5-5 A breakdown of TCO(fixed-route vehicle),Chiang Mai5.1.3 ResultsofCost-BenefitAnalysisCost-benefit estimates of investment in public transport vehicle types within the province,both fixed-route and non-fixed-route,comparing ICEs and EVs,assume battery replacemen

270、t the during 10 years of service,as public vehicles are used more than private vehicles that currently have a factory battery warranty of around 180,000 200,000 km or a period of 8 years.When comparing usage from the field survey,it was found that public vehicles have the lowest general service at a

271、round 30,000 km/year.When the battery warranty period was analysed,it was found that the battery must be replaced before the vehicle reaches 6 years of use,hence it is necessary to count battery Notes-Data on ICE vehicles refers to the average of the data obtained from interviews.-Data on EVs is bas

272、ed on sales documents.The context of use has not been taken into account.-The calculation is based on the assumption of a vehicle service life of 10 years.-A discount rate of 6.5 per cent is used(based on the Bank of Thailands MLR).-Based on fuel prices over the past 6 months and the median price of

273、 charging at charging stations.-The battery cost is based current median price,around 10,000 baht/kWh.-Other expenses include maintenance,registration,insurance.replacement as part of the investment cost,as shown in Figures 5-5 and 5-6.From Figure 5-5 the estimate of the cost-benefit of public vehic

274、les in Chiang Mai,comparing ICE vehicles and public EVs that are currently available in the market,shows that song thaeo have similar costs.A comparison of costs shows that electric fixed-route song thaeo cost up to 90 per cent more than ICE vehicles and have an advantage of 68 per cent lower energy

275、 costs.However,maintenance costs are still higher than ICE vehicles,as there is still no data on maintenance costs for EVs,therefore the study has had to use data from private vehicles instead.+90%-68%+15%0500,0001,000,0001,500,0002,000,0002,500,0003,000,000ICEVEVbahtSong thaeoOther costs(Maintenanc

276、e,Registration)Cost of changingbatteryEnergy costsVehicle priceGovt reductionFigure 5-6 Breakdown of TCO(non-fixed-route vehicles),Chiang Mai+14%-72%+12%0100,000200,000300,000400,000500,000ICEVEVbahtMotorcycle taxiOther costs(Maintenance,Registration)Cost of changingbatteryEnergy costsVehicle priceG

277、ovt reduction30Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of Thailand+23%-12%-24%0200,000400,000600,000800,0001,000,000ICEVEVbahtTuk-tukOther costs(Maintenance,Registration)Cost of changingbatteryEnergy costsVehicle priceGovt reduction+23%-63%-1%0500,0001

278、,000,0001,500,0002,000,0002,500,0003,000,000ICEVEVbahtTaxi,gasoline Other costs(Maintenance,Registration)Cost of changingbatteryEnergy costsVehicle priceGovt reduction-23%-73%-54%0500,0001,000,0001,500,0002,000,0002,500,0003,000,0003,500,0004,000,000ICEVEVbahtTaxi,diesel Other costs(Maintenance,Regi

279、stration)Cost of changingbatteryEnergy costsVehicle priceGovt reduction315.Results of Survey and Data Analysis for the Four Target ProvincesNotes-Data on ICE vehicles refers to the average of the data obtained from interviews.-Data on EVs is based on sales documents.The context of use has not been t

280、aken into account.-The calculation is based on the assumption of a vehicle service life of 10 years.-A discount rate of 6.5 per cent is used(based on the Bank of Thailands MLR).-Based on fuel prices over the past 6 months and the median price of charging at charging stations.-The battery cost is bas

281、ed current median price,around 10,000 baht/kWh.-Other expenses include maintenance,registration,insurance.The results of the study for each type of non-fixed-route vehicles are as follows:A)Electric motorcycle taxis are cheaper than ICE motorcycles,with a 14 per cent higher purchase price,but a tota

282、l government discount of 18,000 baht lowers the cost,and energy costs are 72 per cent lower.B)It was found that the capital cost of electric tuk-tuk is up to 23 per cent higher than ICE tuk-tuk,since the vehicles are relatively expensive,while energy consumption of EVs was 12 per cent lower and main

283、tenance costs 24 per cent lower.But because of the cost of replacing the battery,overall costs were higher than an ICE tuk-tuk.C)In the case of gasoline taxis,it was found that compared to ICE vehicles,EVs are 23 per cent more expensive.Energy costs are 63 per cent lower,making overall costs lower.D

284、)For diesel taxis,the cost of EVs was found to be 23 per cent lower because the price of EVs is the price of an SUV(Sports Utility Vehicle)with no more than seven seats.The market still does not have large electric cars similar to MPVs(Multi-Purpose Vehicles).EVs had 73 per cent lower energy costs,a

285、nd 54 per cent lower maintenance costs,resulting in lower total costs.E)In the case of non-fixed-route song thaeo,the current price of EVs is 90 per cent higher,but+90%-61%+74%0500,0001,000,0001,500,0002,000,0002,500,000ICEVEVbahtSong thaeo,non-fixed route Other costs(Maintenance,Registration)Cost o

286、f changingbatteryEnergy costsVehicle priceGovt reductionenergy costs will be 61 per cent lower in the future.The price of EVs may become more competitive;domestic production will lower prices,which should make them competitive than ICE vehicles.In terms of the payback period,an evaluation of the cas

287、h flow relative to expenses shows that low-income fixed-route vehicles will not pay back before 10 years,while non-fixed-route vehicles with higher incomes can pay back within seven years,depending on the type of vehicle.The results are shown in the appendix.5.1.4 Estimate of Interest in Switching t

288、o Electric VehiclesThe results of field studies,surveys and interviews with drivers of different types of public vehicles on their interest in switching to EVs in the future are shown in terms of type of service in Figures 5-7 to 5-9.From Figures 5-7 to 5-9,based on information and interviews by the

289、 study,as many as 63 per cent of drivers are interested in using EVs in public transportation,with 78 per cent of those driving fixed-route vehicles,while among non-fixed-route vehicles only 71 per cent of tuk-tuk drivers have no interest in using electric tuk-tuk.The demand among drivers to switch

290、to EVs can be analysed in the results summarized in Table 5-5.32Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandInterested,29%Not interested,71%Tuk-tukInterested,52%Not interested,48%TaxiInterested,50%Not interested,50%Motorcycle taxiInterested,59%N

291、ot interested,41%Song thaeoOverallInterested,63%Not interested,37%Interested,78%Not interested,22%Song thaeoFigure 5-7 Interest in converting to using public EVs,Chiang MaiFigure 5-8 Interest in converting to using fixed-route public EVs,Chiang MaiFigure 5-9 Interest in converting to using non-fixed

292、-route public EVs,Chiang Mai335.Results of Survey and Data Analysis for the Four Target ProvincesTable 5-5 Interest among drivers in switching to electric vehicles reasons and concerns,Chiang MaiType of routeVehicle typeReasonsFixed routeSong thaeoInterested Economy and the ability to reduce travel

293、costs.Fuel is expensive and EVs do not require it.Itisanewtechnology,withnosootorsmoketocreateairpollution.Publictransportisoperatedmostlybycooperatives,sothedecisionlieswiththeowner of the cooperative.Concerns were shown about power if EVs cannot climb hills or mountains with slopescharacteristicof

294、ChiangMaiProvince.Cost-effectiveness and service life must be properly evaluated.Funding or support measures are needed from the government sector.Not interested EV ability to climb hills and the number of batteries needed should be tested.Fundstoinvestarelacking.There are concerns about safety.The

295、characteristics of EVs do not match my interests.Non-fixedrouteMotorcycletaxiInterested Economy Easy to ride ButIneedmoreknowledgeaboutbatteries,priceandrange.ThedecisiontochooseEVSwillgiveimportancetotherangeononecharge.Not interested Highexpenses Limitations of range and charging stations ICEs can

296、 be used longer and are more durable.Information and data are insufficient.Tuk-tukInterested The technology is modern and convenient.It helps reduce pollution and is economical with fuel.Information and data are insufficient.But the efficiency of EVs must be considered first.Fundstoinvestarelacking.

297、But there are concerns about queues.Not interested Currently used vehicles are still good and usable.There is an idea that EVs still have quality faults and are not as good as ICEs currentlyinuse,suchasaccelerationrates.34Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four

298、Provinces of ThailandType of routeVehicle typeReasonsNon-fixedrouteTaxiInterested EVssavefuelbecausethecostischeaperthanLPGorgasoline.Helpsreducepollutionandareenvironmentallyfriendly,convenient,quietandmodern.Thereareconcernsaboutrangeononecharge(atleast500km),andthetimetakenfor charging may cost t

299、he opportunity to get customers.A model with 8 passenger seats is needed.There are concerns about the number of battery charging stations.Moredetailedstudiesareneeded.Not interested Current vehicle can still be used for 5-6 years;and the income is uncertain while investment costs are high.Not conven

300、ient for running long distances across provinces.Duration of each charging time.Problem of battery insurance.Thecostoffuel(LPG)isstillnothigh.Insufficient information.Song thaeoInterested IwanttoknowifEVsarereallymoreeconomical.Savesfuelandreducesexpenses.Reduces pollution.OKifyoudriveinthecity,butn

301、otconfidentaboutgoinguphillsorsteepslopes But the price is too high to afford one.ButneedtoseeifEVscanclimbhillsOK.But need to see costs.But it depends on the vehicle price and availability of servicing.Not interested No capital for the high price.EVs have just come out.Thereareconcernsaboutdrivingu

302、phills.TheChiangMairegionhasonlyhills.There is no desire to change because I have used an ICE for a long time.Long distances are a difficulty because there are few charging points.ThereisalackofinformationanddataaboutEVs.Fixed-route song thaeo drivers are interested in switching to EVs for reasons o

303、f economy and emissions,but there are still concerns about cost-effectiveness and high current investment costs.Among the reasons of those who are not interested are lack of funding and safety issues.Among non-fixed-route vehicles,motorcycle taxi riders are interested in energy efficiency,but there

304、are range concerns,and there are also some who are not interested because of high costs.Tuk-tuk drivers give as reasons that electric tuk-tuk are more economical than ICE tuk-tuk and can reduce the pollution in Chiang Mai.But there are still concerns about efficiency and funding.Those who are not in

305、terested are not confident about the efficiency of EVs.Taxi drivers are interested for reasons of energy savings and reduction in pollution.There are concerns about the range threshold of at least 500 kilometres and also concerns about charging stations.Those not interested cite capital costs which

306、are still high,and a range that does not cover the service area.Non-fixed-route song thaeo drivers give as reasons energy savings,reduction of pollution.Their concerns are running expenses and capital costs.Those who are not interested give as reasons the unaffordable price or the inability to trave

307、l long distances,making it hard to find charging stations when needed.5.1.5 Opinions and Recommendations on Electric Public Vehicles,Chiang MaiFrom the analysis of field visits,the opinions and recommendations of drivers of each type of public transport vehicle are summarized in Table 5-6.355.Result

308、s of Survey and Data Analysis for the Four Target ProvincesTable 5-6 Opinions and recommendations,Chiang MaiType of routeVehicle typeOpinions and recommendationsFixed routeSong thaeoPublic vehicle drivers The range should cover the service distances.There should be enough charging points and accessi

309、ble service centres.I want free down payment Thereshouldbetestsofcapacityunderconditionsofuse,suchasdrivinguphills.ThereshouldbestandardstosupportswitchingtoEVs,suchastaxdeductionstoagenerallyaffordablelevel.Insufficient news information has been received.Business operators Concerns about charging p

310、oints and range.Thepriceistoohigh,therangeislimited,andtherearefewchargingpoints.Non-fixedrouteMotorcycletaxisPublic vehicle drivers I want the government to help with the cost of buying electric motorcycles.I want there to be extensive service centres.Shouldbeabletotravellongdistancestocovertheserv

311、iceareaandthereshouldbeenoughchargingstations.Tuk-tukPublic vehicle drivers Shouldhavetherangetocovertheserviceareaandhaveenoughchargers.EVs should have production standards for both battery and body.Business operators Range should cover the service area.Servicegaragesorsalespointsmusttakemeasuresto

312、disposeofexpiredbatteries.Capital costs are too high.Business operators cannot start investing.Cooperativemembershaveusedelectrictuk-tukandencounteredanumberoftechnicalproblemsbecausethevehicleswerenotuptodesignstandards(cornering,battery,controlbox).Iwantelectrictuk-tuktobeabletochargeatordinarycha

313、rgingpoints.DriversstilllackknowledgeofelectricalsystemsinEVs.TaxisPublic vehicle drivers Concerns about climbing hills.The range should cover the service area and there should be enough charging points.Therearenotenoughchargingpointsinuse.Chargingtakestoolong.Helpintermsoflong-termvehicleinstalment

314、s.ThecostofEVsshouldbeaffordable.Forexample,vehiclepricesneedtobe30percentlowerandsparepartsprices reduced by 30-40 per cent.LargeEVswith7seatsshouldbeproduced,sufficientforforeignpassengers.Provide more public relations with information about EVs together with training for business operators.Busine

315、ss operators SincethetaxisoperatinginChiangMaiareabouttocometotheendoftheirlife,Iwouldlikethenewgenerationoftaxis to be electric.Thehighcostmakesitdifficultforcooperativememberstostartinvesting.IwouldliketohaveanEVwith7seatsbecausemostcustomersareforeigners.Song thaeoPublic vehicle drivers Theranges

316、houldcover500-700km.withenoughchargingpoints.The price should not be too high and there must be continuous care after conversion.There must be a preliminary trial and long-term instalments with free down payment.Ifyouswitchtoelectricity,youwantfuelcoststogodown.Ifitcangouphills,alotofpeoplewillconve

317、rt.Mostareusedonthehills.Ifyouencourageitsuse,Iwantthepriceofbatteriestobelower.I want the government to help with lower purchase prices.The range is small.I want faster recharging.I want the state to help reduce taxes.I want it to go through the cooperative so that there will be no repercussions.I

318、want training and information about EVs.Business operators I have an interest in EVs.Forinvestmentcosts,IwantthegovernmenttohelpcooperativememberstotaketheinitiativeintheuseofEVs.I want there to be specifications on financing I want EVs to have a similar design to vehicles used today because changes

319、 will affect customer choice of service.Performance should meet the need of steep ascents.36Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Public Transport in Four Provinces of ThailandTable 5-6 shows the recommendations and concerns of fixed-route song thaeo drivers about the range to cover t

320、he service area and adequate charging points.In terms of maintenance,there are still concerns over service centres and assistance with costs is needed to enable the introduction of EVs.Among non-fixed-route operators,it was found that motorcycle taxis,tuk-tuk and song thaeo drivers are still concern

321、ed about initial investment costs and the range to cover the service area.The ability to go up hills may be another important concern since many Chiang Mai tourist spots are up hills.Taxis in Chiang Mai operate at the airport to pick up tourists.Taxi drivers are still concerned about range and may n

322、eed large vehicles to accommodate foreign tourists carrying luggage to travel for several days within Chiang Mai or nearby provinces.From Table 5-6 the study grouped recommendations and concerns into investment,technical matters,information,and others,for both fixed-route and non-fixed-route vehicle

323、s,as shown in Table 5-7.Route typeDetailsFixed routeInvestment Highinvestment costs.The government should help reduce the cost of both buying EVs and tax/insurance.Technical matters Concerns about EV range that must cover the service area.Concerns that charging stations are still too few.Desire for

324、comprehensive service centres.Information Desirefordetailedvehicleinformation,includingrangeandtheabilitytoclimbhills.ThereisstillalackofknowledgeaboutEVs.Desire for training to get information.Other Iwantatrialbeforeactualusetohelpinmakingadecision.Non-fixedrouteInvestment Highinvestmentcosts.The g

325、overnment should reduce the cost of both buying EVs and tax/insurance.Costsshouldbeaffordable,nottooexpensive.Car prices need to be 30 per cent cheaper and spare parts prices reduced by 30-40 per cent.Technical matters Concerns about the ability to climb hills and about the range of EVs that must co

326、ver the service area.Ifitcangouphills,alotofpeoplewillconvert.Mostareusedonthehills.Concerns that charging stations are still too few.Desire for comprehensive service centres.Servicegaragesorsalespointsmusttakemeasurestodisposeofexpiredbatteries.IwantlargeEVswithsevenseatstobemade,enoughforforeignpa

327、ssengers.EVs should have production standards for both battery and body.information DriversstilllackknowledgeofelectricalsystemsinEVs.Other Cooperativemembershaveusedelectrictuk-tukandencounteredanumberoftechnicalproblemsbecausethevehicleswerenotuptodesignstandards(cornering,battery,controlbox).Desi

328、re to go through the cooperative so that there will be no repercussions.Table 5-7 Grouping of opinions and recommendations,Chiang Mai375.Results of Survey and Data Analysis for the Four Target Provinces5.2 Khon Kaen 5.2.1 Sample GroupThe surveys of public transport in Khon Kaen categorized by interv

329、iewee and type of service before and after outlier values were screened out are shown in Table 5-8 to Table 5-10.Data points with values more than two times higher or lower than average were excluded,as they are higher/lower than what would be representative data.Table 5-8 Number of transport operat

330、ors surveyed in Khon KaenTable 5-9 Number of drivers renting public transport vehicles surveyed in Khon KaenTable 5-10 Number of owners of public transport vehicles surveyed in Khon KaenVehicle typeNumber(before)Number(after)Fixed route44 Song thaeo11Minivan22Minibus11Non-fixed route22 Taxi22Vehicle

331、 typeNumber(before)Number(after)Fixed route1913 Song thaeo148Minivan44Minibus11Non-fixed route2512 Tuk-tuk115 Taxi147Vehicle typeNumber(before)Number(after)Fixed route1510 Song thaeo1510Non-fixed route4423Motorcycletaxi148 Tuk-tuk126 Taxi18938Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Land-Based Publ

332、ic Transport in Four Provinces of Thailand5.2.2 Results of Carbon Dioxide Emission Estimates in the Public Transport Sector,Khon KaenTable 5-11 and Figures 5-10 to 5-13 show the results of the estimated carbon dioxide emissions of public vehicles in Khon Kaen Province.Among fixed-route vehicles,it w

333、as found that song thaeo(diesel)have the highest CO2 emissions at 18.06 tCO2eq/year due to having the lowest fuel economy rate compared to other vehicle types.Services are run at low speed there are more frequent stops to pick up passengers than with other types of vehicles.This raises fuel consumption,with a rate of 6.30 km/l.Fixed-route minivans(diesel)have CO2 emissions of 15.5 tCO2eq/year due