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1、Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu Teachers Digital Literacy in the East Asia and Pacific RegionSpotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and VanuatuAcknowledgementsThe preparation of this publication was led by Mitsue Uemura(Regional Education Adviser,UNICEF E
2、APRO)with contributions from Antonia Mandry(UNICEF).The report was prepared by an independent consultant,Ronda Zelezn-Green.The main body of the report was edited by Kate Manton,and the report was designed by Parppim Pimmaratana,Bangkok.Valuable feedback and comments were provided by UNICEF East Asi
3、a and Pacific Regional Office(EAPRO)and country office colleagues,as well as education staff in Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.Suggested citation:UNICEF EAPRO.(2024).Teachers digital literacy in the East Asiaand Pacific region:Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands a
4、ndVanuatu.UNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional Office.Cover photo:At Royal Crusade High School in Stung Treng,Ms.Mechpring Sereny(20)guides Panha(18)through Generation Futures Local Life Skills Education programme,empowering youth to tackle issues like climate change and gender equality in STEM.UNI
5、CEF Cambodia/2023/Nick SellsUNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional Office19 Phra Athit Road,Bangkok,Thailand 10200.Email:eaprounicef.orgwww.unicef.org/eap/Teachers digital literacy in the East Asia and Pacific regi nSpotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu2TEACHERS DIGITAL LITE
6、RACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICContentsAcronyms and abbreviations 4Executive summary 6Introduction 11Objectives 15Chapter 1.Methodology 16 1.1 Research design and data-collection methods 17 1.2 Sampling techniques and participant selection criteria 21 1.3 Ethical considerations 21 1.4 Limitations
7、21Chapter 2.The digital education landscape in East Asia and the Pacific 24 2.1 Overview 25 2.2 Country contexts 29Chapter 3.Teachers perspectives 48 3.1 Cambodia 49 3.2 China 56 3.3 Lao PDR 67 3.4 Solomon Islands 75 3.5 Vanuatu 81 3.6 Regional analysis of poll responses 88Chapter 4.Commonalities an
8、d differences across countries 91 4.1 Teachers acquisition of digital skills 92 4.2 Pedagogical approaches to digital skills learning 92 4.3 Gender-responsive pedagogies and online safety 93 4.4 Regional analysis of findings 94Chapter 5.Policy recommendations 95 5.1 Establish comprehensive training
9、programmes for digital skills acquisition 96 5.2 Expand access to digital resources and digital teaching infrastructure 98 5.3 Provide financial support for teachers professional development 99 5.4 I ncorporate gender-sensitive pedagogy in teacher-training modules and ongoing professional developmen
10、t programmes 100 5.5 Strengthen online safety education for teachers and students 101 5.6 Enhance language accessibility in digital resources 103 5.7 Make time for digital skills development 104 5.8 Encourage publicprivate partnerships for resource allocation 105 5.9 Standardize digital literacy edu
11、cation across regions and countries 106 5.10 Promote community involvement and awareness 107Conclusion 110References 1123Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu List of figuresList of tablesFigure 1.Qualitative research design.17Figure 2.KII Participants.18Figure 3.FGD partic
12、ipants.19Table 1.Digital skills outlined in Sustainable Development Goal(SDG)indicator 4.4.1 .13Table 2.Key informant interviews(KIIs).18Table 3.Focus group discussions(FGDs).19Table 4.Research participant profiles .19Table 5.Number of poll responses .21Table 6.Mobile connectivity by country.28Table
13、 7.Poll responses.754TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICAcronyms and abbreviationsAI Artificial intelligenceASEAN Association of Southeast Asian NationsCDPF Capacity Development Partnership FundCLICC Computer Laboratory and Internet Community CentreCPD Continuing Professional Deve
14、lopmentEdTech Educational TechnologyEMIS Education Management Information SystemFGD Focus Group DiscussionGDP Gross Domestic ProductHSP Home-schooling packageICT Information And Communication TechnologyICTSU Information and Communication Technology Support UnitIoT Internet of ThingsKII Key Informant
15、 InterviewLCP Learning Continuity ProgramLDC Least Developed CountryMEHRD Ministry of Education and Human Resources DevelopmentMoES Ministry of Education and SportsMoET Ministry of Education and TrainingMoEYS Ministry of Education,Youth and SportNGO Non-Governmental OrganizationOECD Organisation for
16、 Economic Co-operation and DevelopmentPPP PublicPrivate PartnershipSDG Sustainable Development GoalSTEM Science,Technology,Engineering And MathematicsTPACK Technological Pedagogical Content KnowledgeTRBR Telecommunications Radiocommunications and Broadcasting RegulatorTVET Technical And Vocational E
17、ducation And TrainingUAP Universal Access PolicyUNICEF EAPRO UNICEF East Asia and Pacific Regional OfficeVR Virtual Reality5Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu 6GIRLS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICEXECUTIVE SUMMARYAs societies embrace a rapidly evolving dig
18、ital landscape,digital skills have become essential for meaningful engagement and participation for all nations.In the face of a global learning crisis,compounded by the COVID-19 pandemics impact on education,the education sector recognizes the integral role digital skills play in preparing for the
19、digital era.Governments across the East Asia and Pacific region have striven to address digital inequalities and enhance digital literacy through initiatives such as the Bangkok Statement 2022 and the Declaration on the Digital Transformation of Education Systems in ASEAN(ASEAN,2022;UNESCO,2022b).Th
20、ese efforts emphasize the importance of teachers in developing the digital literacy skills needed for remote,online and blended teaching.Teachers can and must play a pivotal role in equipping future generations with the 21st century skills they need to successfully engage in multiple activities,incl
21、uding civic life,education,healthy living and employment.This report aims to provide a detailed analysis of the digital education landscape in East Asia and the Pacific,with a particular focus on the role of teachers in equipping the next generation with the skills necessary to participate in the la
22、bour market.Building on the findings of UNICEFs 2023 study on girls digital literacy in the East Asia and Pacific region(UNICEF EAPRO,2023a),this study provides insights on teachers digital skills and literacy to inform policy development in five countries:Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and
23、Vanuatu.The study used three main qualitative research methods:a comprehensive review of existing literature;key informant interviews(KIIs);and focus group discussions(FGDs)with teachers,teacher educators,and education authority representatives.The data were enhanced with qualitative polls.A critica
24、l part of this report is the inclusion of the voices of practising educators discussing digital skills and providing concrete examples of successful strategies and approaches that have been implemented in the five countries.This teacher-centred approach provides practical insights for educators look
25、ing to improve their digital teaching methods,and offers actionable advice to teachers and policymakers seeking to enhance learning outcomes in digital skills.The findings highlight the importance of gender-responsive pedagogies for online safety and inclusivity,and identify geographical disparities
26、 in digital education resources as a common challenge across all countries.Rural areas,in particular,often need to catch up to their urban counterparts regarding access to digital tools and internet connectivity,as seen in Cambodia and Vanuatu.Distinct patterns in the digital literacy of teachers ac
27、ross the five countries were revealed in the study.Several critical themes became apparent,underscoring the importance of empowering teachers with digital skills to enhance the overall learning experience.Three key areas emerged as clear priorities:the acquisition of digital skills by teachers,the d
28、iverse pedagogical approaches employed,and the integration of gender-responsive strategies and online safety measures.7Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu 7Spotlight on Cambodia,Indonesia,Lao PDR,Timor-Leste and Viet Nam Teachers acquisition of digital skills The report i
29、dentifies unique approaches to teachers acquisition of digital skills in the five countries.The research revealed diverse levels of digital proficiency among teachers,directly influencing the quality of student learning outcomes.Regions with more digitally literate teachers offer interactive and eng
30、aging learning experiences for their students.Insights into effective professional development programmes and training initiatives shed light on the strategies employed to enhance teachers digital literacy.Notably,China places a distinct national emphasis on digital literacy,as seen in initiatives l
31、ike Digital China and teachers adoption of advanced technologies in the classroom,including virtual reality(VR)and artificial intelligence(AI).In contrast,Cambodia,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu lack structured professional development,heavily relying on self-directed learning.The study also delves int
32、o challenges faced by teachers in acquiring digital skills.Constraints on the time available to learn and improve digital skills were a recurrent challenge for teachers in China.Teachers in Cambodia and Lao PDR highlighted a challenge with language accessibility in digital platforms and online educa
33、tional resources.In Solomon Islands and Vanuatu,limited access to digital tools,poor internet connection in rural areas,and expensive internet access hamper effective integration of digital skills into teaching.Government support,both in budget allocation and regulatory measures,emerged as a crucial
34、 factor in the integration of digital skills.Teachers urged governments to provide digital infrastructure and emphasized the need for substantial formal training in digital skills,such as how to successfully integrate digital tools in different subjects and how to make learning more interactive for
35、students.They expressed a need for information and communication technology(ICT)tools and the integration of resources into the curriculum.The report also identified that a supportive community is essential,allowing teachers to seek assistance and fostering parental involvement in supporting student
36、s learning journeys in digital skills.This aligns with the broader discussion about the impact of geographical disparities in digital education resources,emphasizing the importance of collaboration and community engagement in achieving effective digital education.GIRLS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST A
37、SIA AND PACIFIC8Pedagogical approaches to digital skills learningAcross the five countries,the report highlights successful examples,showcasing innovative methods of incorporating technology to enrich lesson plans and create interactive learning experiences.The findings show the wide variety of peda
38、gogical approaches to teaching and practising digital skills.China stands out with innovative methods supported by national digital competence frameworks,contrasting with more basic,resource-constrained approaches in Cambodia and Lao PDR.The global impact of the COVID-19 pandemic significantly accel
39、erated the adoption of digital teaching methods across all countries,with China making substantial advancements owing to superior infrastructure and access to digital tools.The study addresses challenges related to the integration of digital tools in the unique educational landscapes of each country
40、,providing practical insights and solutions.A prevalent challenge is the geographical disparity in digital infrastructure and education resources,particularly in rural areas of Cambodia,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.This uneven distribution adversely affects access to digital tools and internet connec
41、tivity,resulting in inconsistent learning experiences and outcomes for students across different regions.Gender-responsive pedagogies and online safetyThe study underscores the importance of gender-responsive strategies in digital literacy across diverse cultural contexts.The research revealed dispa
42、rities between boys and girls experiences in digital education,particularly in regards to access to digital devices,confidence levels,attitudes and learning approaches.The study examines how teachers in the five countries address these gender disparities and create inclusive learning environments.Ad
43、ditionally,the report explores how educators integrate online safety measures into their teaching,focusing on responsible online behaviour and cybersecurity.Across the five countries,some teachers discussed how they actively engage in educating students about cyber safety,even using real-life cases.
44、Teachers stressed the need for gender mainstreaming,especially in pedagogy training.Online safety,particularly for girls,emerged as a priority,emphasizing the need for formal training to raise awareness of potential risks like cyber-bullying.Tailored recommendations are provided to promote gender eq
45、uality and online safety in the specific educational environments of the five countries.The report emphasizes the need for comprehensive strategies that integrate gender-responsive pedagogies and online safety into the digital skills curriculum across all countries.9Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao P
46、DR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu In conclusion,this study serves as a valuable tool for policymakers,schools and stakeholders in the East Asia and Pacific region as they navigate the details of digital education in each countrys unique situation and provide the support and professional development tha
47、t teachers need.The practical findings contribute not only to improving teachers digital skills but also to creating positive and inclusive digital skills learning environments customized for each countrys specific needs.The report concludes with recommendations for the development of flexible and c
48、ontext-specific policies that take into account the unique challenges faced by each country,and emphasizes the importance of investing in teacher training and professional development to ensure that educators have the skills and knowledge necessary to effectively teach and practise digital literacy.
49、10TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICIntroduction UNICEF/UN0610295/Le Vu12TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICAs technology continues to reshape the educational landscape,the proficiency of teachers in digital skills and digital literacy becomes increasingly cruc
50、ial.A range of abilities to use digital devices,communication applications,and networks to access and manage information.They enable people to create and share digital content,communicate and collaborate,and solve problems for effective and creative self-fulfilment in life,learning,work,and social a
51、ctivities at large.Digital skills is defined by UNESCO(2023b)as:Traditional teaching and learning approaches are being replaced by problem-based learning,which encourages students to develop the reflective and critical thinking essential for transferable skills(UNICEF EAPRO,2019c).Digital skills are
52、 instrumental in shifting teaching methods from traditional,teacher-centred approaches to student-centred ones by enhancing student engagement,collaboration and critical thinking.The ability to access,manage,understand,integrate,communicate,evaluate and create information safely and appropriately th
53、rough digital technologies for employment,decent jobs and entrepreneurship.It includes competences that are variously referred to as computer literacy,ICT literacy,information literacy and media literacy.(UNESCO Institute for Statistics,2018a,p.6)Digital literacy is:13Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao
54、 PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu Table 1.Digital skills outlined in Sustainable Development Goal(SDG)indicator 4.4.1Skill levelActivityBasic skills Copying or moving a file or folder Using copy and paste tools to duplicate or move information within a document Sending emails with attached files Tran
55、sferring files between a computer and other devicesStandard skills Using basic arithmetic formulas in a spreadsheet Connecting and installing new devices Creating electronic presentations with presentation software Finding,downloading,installing and configuring softwareAdvanced skills Writing a comp
56、uter program using a specialized programming languageSource:UNESCO Institute for Statistics(2018b).In facing a learning crisis,where millions of children and young people are not developing the skills they need to break out of poverty,the education sector recognizes the critical role digital skills
57、play in preparing them for the digital era.Nearly 60 per cent of 10-year-olds in low-and middle-income countries suffer from learning poverty meaning they are unable to read and understand a simple story.This learning crisis has been exacerbated by the COVID-19 pandemic,although it is widely acknowl
58、edged that many of the challenges in the sector predate it(World Bank et al.,2022).Numerous initiatives by governments and global development organizations have emerged to tackle the crisis.Among these,the Reimagine Education initiative and the Transforming Education Summit stand out as noteworthy e
59、fforts at a global scale aimed at advancing and transforming education in response to the demands of the digital age.As part of the Reimagine Education initiative,UNICEF is urging global partners to join a movement focused on revolutionizing education.The initiative calls for the prioritization of t
60、he most vulnerable children and young people in gaining access to quality digital skills learning,stressing the need for relevance and accessibility tailored to each individuals education level,language and abilities.It advocates for the protection of education funding,with a specific focus on meeti
61、ng the needs of the most vulnerable.Additionally,it encourages decision-makers to drive innovation and investment through cross-community collaborations involving governments,businesses,community groups,industry leaders and more(UNICEF,n.d.).14TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICSi
62、milarly,in 2022,the United Nations Secretary-General convened the Transforming Education Summit in response to the“triple-headed crisis heightened by the COVID-19 pandemic:a crisis of equity and inclusion,a crisis of quality and a crisis of relevance”(UNESCO,2022g).At the summit,thought leaders,poli
63、cymakers and educators converged to address the challenges and opportunities posed by the digital revolution.The resulting global education transformation initiative centres on securing high-level political commitment and engaging cross-sectorally at the country level.Stemming from national consulta
64、tions in 163 countries,it involves extensive commitment from Member State governments.Emphasizing the pivotal role of youth,as outlined in the Youth Declaration,the initiative calls for increased,equitable and efficient investment in education through the Call to Action on Educational Investment.Com
65、plemented by global initiatives,it aims to garner greater financial,technical and political support for country-level implementation,responding to various calls to action launched at the summit.This comprehensive strategy aims to drive transformative changes in education globally.Teachers can contri
66、bute to preparing future generations for success in a digitally connected world by staying updated on technology,integrating digital literacy into teaching,and fostering critical awareness of digital ethics,online safety and responsible digital citizenship.This study builds on the findings of UNICEF
67、s 2023 study on girls digital literacy in the East Asia and Pacific region(UNICEF EAPRO,2023a)to gather insights on teachers digital skills and literacy in five countries:Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.In the aftermath of the COVID-19 pandemic,governments across the East Asia and
68、 Pacific region are addressing digital inequalities and enhancing digital literacy through initiatives such as the Bangkok Statement 2022 and the adoption of the Declaration on the Digital Transformation of Education Systems in ASEAN.Around the world,the accelerated pace of digital transformation in
69、 education as a consequence of the pandemic has brought about a renewed emphasis on learning digital skills.In addition to enhancing digital skills broadly,education systems need to apply a gender lens to teaching through gender-responsive pedagogy,to ensure that girls and boys are on equal footing
70、to participate in digital transformation(UNICEF EAPRO,2023a).Among other findings,the girls digital literacy study,which focused on children in Cambodia,Indonesia,Lao PDR,Timor-Leste and Vietnam,revealed that despite the crucial roles teachers could play in facilitating their students digital skills
71、 acquisition,their involvement was minimal or even non-existent;rather,teachers operated as gatekeepers to girls online access because of concerns about online safety and a lack of confidence in their own digital literacy levels.In addition,the study found that the learning process was hindered by l
72、ow digital literacy levels among teachers,limited availability of technology and devices,challenges with network and internet connectivity,and the high cost of data and devices,particularly in the Pacific.Prevailing sociocultural norms served as a further barrier to childrens opportunities to build
73、digital literacy and skills,especially for girls.Addressing these challenges is necessary to empower all children to safely advance towards more sophisticated digital competencies(UNICEF EAPRO,2023a).15Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu In response to the findings of the
74、 girls digital literacy study,UNICEF EAPRO elected to conduct country-level case studies to explore the following fundamental areas:Teachers acquisition of digital skills to understand how teachers gain digital skills,which they can then pass on to their students.Pedagogical approaches to digital sk
75、ills learning to explore teachers methods and strategies to facilitate digital skills learning among students.Gender-responsive pedagogies and online safety to explore teachers comprehension of gender-responsive pedagogies in the context of digital skills acquisition.This includes focusing on online
76、 safety concerns.The insights gained from this study,existing data and the girls digital literacy report will help inform policymaking decisions to support teachers in leveraging technology to bridge the digital divide,1 to improve learning experiences for students,particularly girls,and to foster t
77、he development of a technologically competent and confident teaching workforce capable of enhancing the skills of a future-ready generation of learners.UNICEF EAPRO is committed to bridging the digital divide by harnessing the potential of digital solutions in the East Asia and Pacific region.This s
78、tudy on teachers digital skills and literacy holds great importance as it sheds light on the regions ongoing journey towards embracing digital advancements.The rise of mobile network operators and improved internet coverage paved the way for this transformation,further accelerated by the challenges
79、posed by the COVID-19 pandemic.This study underscores UNICEFs dedication to advancing digital literacy skills and learning platforms while safeguarding the well-being of children and caregivers in online and remote learning spaces.1 The ITU(2022)defines the digital divide as:“The gap between those w
80、ho have access to and use information communication technologies(ICTs)including internet connectivity,digital literacy skills,and internet-enabled devices,and those who do not.”Objective16TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICMethodology1CHAPTERThis study employed a qualitative resea
81、rch approach to provide the depth needed to understand the contextual intricacies and complexities of teachers experiences,shedding light on their perspectives,barriers and challenges.This holistic approach ensured that the research gathered a nuanced understanding of teachers digital skills acquisi
82、tion and teaching practices,which enhanced the studys ability to provide teacher-centred recommendations and insights that demonstrate the diverse contexts and challenges across the East Asia and Pacific region.17Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu 1.1 Research design and
83、 data-collection methodsThe research involved a thorough review of existing literature,along with key informant interviews(KIIs)and focus group discussions(FGDs)to gather qualitative data.Additionally,separate from the KIIs and FGDs,a series of five polls were conducted to collect further data suppo
84、rting the qualitative findings.Figure 1.Qualitative research designLiterature reviewThe literature review systematically analysed more than 70 sources of targeted literature related to education,employment and the ICT sector,offering insights into the broader policy context.These sources included ac
85、ademic research articles,policy documents,government reports,publications from international organizations,case studies,and empirical studies.This review provided a contextual backdrop for the study.KIIs and FGDsThe qualitative data collection included KIIs and FGDs with teachers and teacher educato
86、rs from the five countries,in addition to education authority representatives in the Solomon Islands.The education authority representatives provided the national and rural-level perspective in the absence of geographical diversity among research participants due to connectivity challenges.These in-
87、depth conversations provided diverse perspectives and experiences,offering valuable insights into the digital skills landscape in each country.The KIIs and FGDs were conducted using video-conferencing platform Zoom.To maintain methodological rigour,the researcher created and deployed open-ended ques
88、tions to ensure a standardized and comprehensive framework for eliciting participants responses during the KIIs and FGDs.This design aimed to facilitate in-depth analyses while maintaining consistency in the types of questions posed and the range of insights obtained,giving 18TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERA
89、CY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICCambodiaChinaLao PDRSolomon IslandsVanuatusufficient space for teachers,teacher educators and education officials to express their thoughts and perspectives.The data were collected over a six-week period from 15 September to 29 October 2023.The target sample size for t
90、he KIIs was five per country,comprising teachers and teacher educators.The FGD target was two per country,with five people participating in each FGD.While these targets were met in Cambodia,China and Lao PDR,in Solomon Islands schools closed early for the academic year owing to the nations hosting o
91、f the Pacific Games in November and December 2023,and Vanuatu was hit by Cyclone Lola on 24 October,rendering data collection untenable with regards to achieving the FGD composition sought.Altogether,21 KIIs and five FGDs were conducted across the five countries.The following tables and figures prov
92、ide a detailed overview of the number of KII and FGD participants per country,and a breakdown of the sample composition based on their respective roles.Table 2.Key informant interviews(KIIs)CountryTotal number of KII participantsNumber of teachersNumber of teacher educatorsOther officialsCambodia532
93、-China541-Lao PDR541-Solomon Islands3201 school inspectorVanuatu330-Figure 2.KII participants012345Number of teachersTotal number of KII participantsNumber of teacher educatorsOther officials19Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu CambodiaChinaLao PDRSolomon IslandsVanuatuC
94、ountryTotal number of FDG participantsNumber of teachersNumber of teacher educatorsOther officialsCambodia532-China550-Lao PDR202-Solomon Islands5203 ministry officials(MEHRD)Vanuatu000-Note:MEHRD is the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development,Solomon Islands.Figure 3.FGD participants0
95、12345Number of teachersTotal number of FGD participantsNumber of teacher educatorsOther officialsTable 3.Focus group discussions(FGDs)CountryKIIsFGDsGenderSubject taught/job roleYears of teaching experienceGenderSubject taught/job roleYears of teaching experienceCambodiaMaleChild development psychop
96、athology(Teacher Educator)13FemaleICT(teacher educator)11FemaleTeacher educator16MalePhysics&chemistry8FemaleMathematics8FemaleEnglish13Table 4.Research participant profiles20TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICCountryKIIsFGDsGenderSubject taught/job roleYears of teaching experienc
97、eGenderSubject taught/job roleYears of teaching experienceCambodiaFemaleSocial studies22FemalePhysics&mathematics10MalePhysics&chemistry18FemaleTeacher educator8ChinaFemaleICT24FemaleICT22MaleHistory10FemaleChemistry15MaleMathematics18FemaleMathematics17FemaleTeacher educator10FemaleMathematics11Fem
98、alePhysics1MaleMathematics13Lao PDRFemaleLao language&history12MaleFundamental ICT(teacher educator)11MaleEnglish23MaleICT(teacher educator)10FemaleICTN/AFemaleEnglish&ICT15FemaleLao language and culture(teacher educator)N/ASolomon IslandsMaleComputer studies2FemaleMathematics&computer studies21Male
99、School inspectorN/AFemaleComputer studies2MaleComputer studies17FemaleMinistry officialN/AMaleMinistry officialN/AMaleMinistry officialN/AVanuatuMaleMathematics8MaleICT2-FemaleEnglish25PollsTo enhance the qualitative data,the researcher distributed a series of five Yes/No polls through teacher netwo
100、rks in each country using the preferred digital platform within that context.The structured Yes/No format aimed to streamline responses and enable descriptive analysis.This approach allowed for overarching conclusions and generalizations,providing a foundation for drawing broad-based inferences.The
101、polls increased the robustness of the studys findings by broadening study participation to a larger pool of education stakeholders across different areas in all five countries,contributing to a more comprehensive understanding of the research topic.21Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islan
102、ds and Vanuatu The target for the polls was 1,500 collectively across the five countries,with a minimum of 50 responses from each country.This target was met in every country except Vanuatu,where responses did not exceed 18 owing to the natural disaster that hit the country in October 2023.The study
103、 received a total of 6,970 responses across the five countries.Table 5 shows the number of poll responses received per country.Table 5.Number of poll responsesCountryTotal number of poll responsesCambodia5,962China730Lao PDR54Solomon Islands206Vanuatu181.2 Sampling techniques and participant selecti
104、on criteriaThe researcher asked UNICEF country offices and education ministries to select teachers to participate in the study,aiming for as much diversity as possible considering the following characteristics:gender,age,geography,subject matter taught,school level taught,years of professional teach
105、ing experience and ICT skill level.The study also aimed to include at least one teacher educator from each country.For the KIIs and FGDs,the study used a purposive sampling strategy,where participants are selected based on specific characteristics or criteria relevant to the research question,rather
106、 than aiming to reflect or represent the general population.For the polls,the only criterion was that the teachers,teacher educators,or education authorities had to be registered on the platform used to deploy the poll;anyone who received the poll was able to participate.1.3 Ethical considerationsCo
107、nsent to participate was an important ethical principle in this research study(Resnik,2020).At the beginning of each KII,the researcher read out a permission request that briefly outlined the research details and assured participants that their responses were voluntary and would be kept confidential
108、.Participants were also reassured that their real names would never be used or written anywhere unless they expressly granted permission.This step was necessary to help promote candour while discussing a subject that might be considered politically sensitive.All participants granted their permission
109、 to participate in the study and for their quotes to be used if needed,with any potentially identifying information removed.1.4 LimitationsThe study aimed to explore teachers experiences in acquiring and teaching digital skills,including their use of gender-responsive pedagogies and online safety me
110、asures.Limitations that could affect the study such as language and availability of literature were mitigated with a series of measures to enhance the depth and reliability of findings.22TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICLanguageOne of the primary constraints was the language bar
111、rier when literature in English was not readily available(Par&Kitsiou,2017).The use of advanced digital translation tools helped the researcher to overcome this significant limitation to some degree,allowing access to literature in the languages of the five countries.Remote collectionImplementing st
112、udies remotely can pose limitations,particularly when researching complex local educational practices and cultural nuances.Access to data sources can be restricted and reliance on digital communication may lead to a loss of the context that is crucial in qualitative research(Burroughs,2017).Mitigati
113、on measures for conducting this study remotely included spending additional time before and after data-collection activities to answer further questions from research participants,building camaraderie with interpreters,obtaining additional information sources from UNICEF country offices,and enabling
114、 all collaborators in this process to speak their minds even if unrelated to the study,in order to build strong rapport at a distance.Limited numbersThe limited number of KIIs and FGDs might not sufficiently represent teachers diverse experiences and viewpoints across different regions within the fi
115、ve countries(Nyumba et al.,2018).To mitigate against gaps identified in the KIIs and FGDs,reference to various literature sources was included throughout the analysis and interpretation phases.Specifically,when discussing geographical disparities in digital skills within China,the lack of direct dat
116、a was counteracted by incorporating insights from existing documents and studies on the topic.This approach broadened the understanding and provided a more comprehensive analysis.Furthermore,owing to participants time constraints,FGDs and KIIs in Solomon Islands were combined.This could lead to a di
117、lution of the data richness.Separate FGDs and KIIs would allow for more focused discussions and in-depth exploration of individual experiences.By combining these methods,the study could diminish the depth and specific insights that each method offers independently(World Bank,2020).InterpretersThe us
118、e of interpreters in the study introduced another layer of complexity.While interpreters are invaluable in bridging language gaps,their presence inherently introduces the risk of misinterpretation or loss of nuanced information(Kksal&Yrk,2020;Papatsimouli et al.,2023).Misinterpretations or omissions
119、 during translation can sometimes generate incomplete or skewed data(Barocas&Selbst,2016).Mitigation measures included providing clear guidelines at the start of data collection for interpretation expectations and cultivating friendly collaboration with interpreters before data collection to lower t
120、heir affective filter,which can enhance interpretation accuracy.Additionally,the researcher talked with the interpreters to understand their skill level as well as to orient them on the research process.Question formatAnother limitation of the study stemmed from the variations in responses to the sa
121、me question obtained from different data-collection methods.This was particularly notable for 23Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu questions about receiving training and defining digital skills confidence levels.Yes/No polls potentially elicit responses that lack thoroug
122、h consideration of actual abilities,as validation of the response is not required;this possibility emphasizes the challenge of determining how respondents interpret and process questions and responses(Farmer et al.,2022).Conversely,initiating an interview with an open-ended question such as“What is
123、your understanding of digital skills?”fostered a more thoughtful and nuanced tone,revealing a richer perspective and leading to people thinking more carefully before responding.Selection bias and sample populationParticipants for KIIs and FGDs were chosen by government officials.This selection proce
124、ss may have skewed the representation of perspectives.Recognizing this limitation is essential for accurately interpreting our findings(Millard et al.,2023).To address the selection bias in this study,careful attention and prioritization was given to comparing findings with those from the literature
125、 review.Owing to the non-representative nature of the sample,the findings are not generalizable to the wider population.Therefore,any conclusions drawn should be viewed as specific to the surveyed group and not indicative of broader trends or behaviours.This limitation is crucial to keep in mind whe
126、n considering the applicability and implications of the survey results in wider contexts.Caution should also be taken when interpreting the poll surveys,particularly because they were conducted using online digital devices.While this method allows for convenience and further reach(Bailey,2023),it bi
127、ases the sample towards teachers who possess a certain degree of digital literacy,as they are more likely to engage with online platforms and respond to such polls.Consequently,the findings may not fully represent the views of less digitally literate teachers,potentially skewing our understanding of
128、 the broader educational landscape.Availability of peer-reviewed literatureAnother limitation was the narrow body of research available on the Pacific Islands.This led to a potential gap in capturing comprehensive,country-specific insights and understanding for Vanuatu and Solomon Islands,or the nua
129、nces of digital skills acquisition and teaching practices across the different islands(Aydin et al.,2023).Lastly,the uneven distribution of existing peer-reviewed literature across the studied countries posed a challenge.The abundance of sources for China,Cambodia and Lao PDR contrasts with the limi
130、ted peer-reviewed research available specifically for Vanuatu and Solomon Islands(rather than literature focusing on the Pacific Islands as a whole).This disparity may have led to an imbalanced view of the issues at hand,as the study could be affected by the lack of linkages to be made between insig
131、hts that surface and established research(Nuez et al.,2019;OECD,2020b).This unevenness could result in a skewed understanding of regional differences and similarities in digital skills acquisition and teaching practices among teachers(Xiao&Watson,2019).To help decrease the impact of this constraint
132、on the study findings,UNICEF EAPRO and the UNICEF country offices who helped facilitate the study were regularly encouraged to share studies,academic research,and other relevant sources that could be integrated into the study.24TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICGIRLS DIGITAL LITE
133、RACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC24The digital education landscape in East Asia and the Pacific2CHAPTER25Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu 2.1 OverviewIn an increasingly digital world,young peoples success often depends on digital skills,which they need in order to part
134、icipate in the modern labour force and to make well-informed decisions on matters that affect their lives(UNICEF EAPRO,2021a).Digital technology has significantly changed how teachers teach and students learn,improving the quality of education and access to education worldwide.However,the right cond
135、itions need to be implemented before teachers and students can reap the benefits of digital technology(Tondeur et al.,2019).Teachers need professional and systematic training to reshape their educational philosophies,enhance digital skills,and boost work productivity(Zhou et al.,2023).While some tea
136、chers have acquired basic technological literacy,others have yet to develop technical and pedagogical knowledge,or the skills to integrate technology with pedagogy(Garba et al.,2015).Furthermore,context-specific technology and digital solutions are needed for the particular challenges faced by diffe
137、rent communities such as teachers with limited digital skills,lack of appropriate infrastructure,and insufficient numbers of schools with digital tools(UNICEF,2023a).Before the COVID-19 pandemic necessitated remote learning,the use of ICT in education across most East Asian and Pacific countries was
138、 limited,and many countries lacked specific educational policies for its integration into education(UNICEF EAPRO,2022).COVID-19 pandemicThe COVID-19 pandemic accelerated the adoption of online teaching methods in East Asia and the Pacific,pushing teachers to enhance their digital competencies(Adedoy
139、in&Soykan,2020).Before the onset of the pandemic,education in the East Asia and Pacific region was largely characterized by traditional methodologies and practices.In this context,traditional education often involves face-to-face classroom interactions,teacher-led instruction,physical textbooks,and
140、a conventional assessment framework(UNESCO,2015).The sudden emergence of the pandemic disrupted this conventional educational landscape and led to a rapid and widespread shift towards alternative modes of learning(UNICEF EAPRO,2020b).The East Asia region was the first to experience the impact of COV
141、ID-19,leading to school closures as an immediate safety measure.These closures persisted for an average of 151 days from February 2020 to August 2021 and significantly disrupted the education of over 800 million children in the East Asia and Pacific region(UNICEF EAPRO,2021b).The closures severely a
142、ffected the provision of high-quality education,hindering the attainment of expected learning results,diminishing the quality of student participation,and adversely affecting learners general health and well-being.This impact was particularly pronounced among students who were already economically d
143、isadvantaged or marginalized in other ways,and students with disability(UNESCO,2022a).In response to the challenges posed by the pandemic,governments in the region intensified efforts to prioritize digital skills learning and address the inequalities,in order to improve digital literacy,especially i
144、n rural areas(UNICEF EAPRO,2023a).26TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICPost-pandemic progressEven after the pandemic,though,digital literacy and ICT integration in classrooms vary across the region,owing to disparities in both economic development and resources dedicated to ICT in
145、 formal education(UNICEF EAPRO,2022).While middle-and high-income countries demonstrate widespread ICT use in education,many developing nations lack integration,especially with more advanced forms.Consequently,children in developing countries often gain more ICT skills informally outside the classro
146、om than within it(UNESCO,2016).China has made notable strides in advancing digital literacy,particularly in bridging the digital divide among older demographics(Famin et al.,2021).Despite this progress,however,urban/rural disparities persist(Gao&Li,2022).Meanwhile,Lao PDR and Cambodia have been proa
147、ctively tackling significant challenges in their education systems and are in the early stages of integrating ICT in education and improving digital literacy and educational access through technology(Asian Development Bank,2022b;GPE,n.d.).However,they also continue to grapple with challenges of unev
148、en resource distribution between urban and rural areas(Pang et al.,2022).Solomon Islands and Vanuatu have also made progress in digital education but encounter difficulties with limited digital infrastructure and resources,particularly in remote areas(Sharma et al.,2018).Despite the challenges,gover
149、nments and organizations in the region are committed to enhancing digital literacy and digital innovation,especially in educational contexts,with a renewed focus on bridging the digital divide(UNESCO,n.d.).As economies become more digital,the traditional curriculum has to evolve to emphasize basic d
150、igital literacy,recognizing its significance for economic and social growth(UNESCO,2019b).Digital skills learning can contribute significantly to advancing Sustainable Development Goal(SDG)4 to“ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”(UNES
151、CO,2022a).Opportunities for women and girlsDigital technology can also offer women and girls opportunities to overcome hurdles they may face in the physical world(Tyers-Chowdhury&Binder,2021).UNICEF reports that while digital spaces offer new opportunities for adolescent girls and young women,they a
152、lso generate new ways to harm them and to amplify existing forms of abuse.Therefore,equipping them with knowledge and skills for navigating the internet and using digital devices safely is essential(UNICEF,2023a).Adolescent girls and young women must be supported to develop advanced digital skills s
153、o that they can create online content and digital technologies that reflect their lives and that are devoid of gender bias(UNICEF,2023a).As a recent UNICEF report notes:Including girls voices is essential when developing any digital products or services,or any digital development programmes.Putting
154、girls front and centre in the design process not only ensures that the products and services meet their needs and their digital realities,but it also builds girls skills and confidence in doing so.(Tyers-Chowdhury&Binder,2021,p.19)27Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu Ins
155、ights from the girls digital literacy reportThe girls digital literacy report that preceded this study found that although adolescents are active online,they tend to engage in only basic digital activities,and there is a notable lack of progression to more advanced digital competencies,especially am
156、ong girls when reaching adolescence.The research uncovered a notable issue in the prevailing approach to digital literacy education,which leans heavily towards teacher-centred,theoretical methods and is essentially gender-neutral.Coupled with the fact that many teachers themselves possess limited di
157、gital literacy skills,this situation disproportionately affects the quality of education received by girls.The study also found that girls and boys primarily learn through social learning with peers,and that parents and teachers play little to no role in supporting their childrens digital skills acq
158、uisition.Rather,they operate as gatekeepers to girls online access because of concerns about online safety and lack of confidence in their own digital literacy.However,it is widely acknowledged that teachers can help students develop digital skills to perform well in a digitally connected world(UNIC
159、EF EAPRO,2023a).Several studies have highlighted the significant role that teachers play in promoting digital transformation in education,suggesting that the success of digital education systems relies on the number of teachers equipped with digital literacy and skills(Esteve-Mon et al.,2020;UNESCO,
160、2022c).Literature reviewThe literature review that follows in section 2.2 seeks to paint a comprehensive picture of the contexts in which the countries are undertaking digital transformation in their education systems and enhancing their teachers digital competencies.The objective is to cultivate an
161、 understanding of the factors that may influence teachers acquisition of digital skills and their pedagogical approaches to teaching these skills.Chapter 3 then follows up with analysis of the data collected directly in KIIs and FGDs for this research.The literature review examines the context of di
162、gital education in Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.The selection of these countries for the study was influenced by their differing levels of economic development,access to technology,and educational systems.Moreover,their geographical diversity,spanning from the Southeast Asian m
163、ainland to the Pacific Islands,introduces an additional layer of complexity in terms of digital infrastructure,connectivity and resources.The review analyses more than 70 sources of targeted literature related to education,employment and the ICT sector,offering insights into the broader policy conte
164、xt.These sources include academic research articles,policy documents,government reports,publications from international organizations,case studies and empirical studies.GSMA Mobile Connectivity IndexOne of the data sources used is the GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index(GSMA,n.d.).This index measures the
165、 performance of 170 countries representing 99 per cent of the global population against key enablers of mobile internet adoption:infrastructure,affordability,consumer readiness,and content and services with available data,from 2014 to 2022.Countries are ranked in five clusters with similar enabling
166、environments:28TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC Leaders(score above 80)generally perform very well across all enablers and have very high levels of mobile internet penetration.Advanced(score above 65)perform well on three enablers and usually have high penetration rates.Transit
167、ioners(score above 50)perform well on at least two enablers.Emerging(score above 35)countries perform fairly well on one or two enablers but show room for improvement on others.Discoverers(score below 35)show room for improvement across all four enablers and have correspondingly low levels of mobile
168、 internet penetration.To compare the rankings of the countries in this study,Table 6 presents the scores of other countries within the South,Southeast and East Asia region.These scores provide valuable insights into the performance of each country in the context of the broader region.Table 6.Mobile
169、connectivity by countryClusterCountryScoreLeaderSingapore93.1South Korea83.7Japan84.6China80.7AdvanceMalaysia73.9Thailand73.8Brunei Darussalam71.2Indonesia67.9Mongolia65.5TransitionersPhilippines63.0India61.3Cambodia54.6Lao PDR52.5Vanuatu51.1EmergingTimor-Leste48.1Myanmar47.5Pakistan44.9Papua New Gu
170、inea43.4Solomon Islands38.9DiscoversAfghanistan30.1 Source:GSMA,n.d.29Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu 2.2 Country contextsCambodiai.Socio-economic context Cambodia is a Southeast Asian country with a population of over 16 million(GlobalEDGE,2023;World Bank,2023a).Camb
171、odias government is a mix of democracy and monarchy,with a king as the top leader and a prime minister running the government.The World Bank(2023a)notes:ii.Digital infrastructure The GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index ranks Cambodia at 54.6,in the Transitioners cluster,which indicates that Cambodia is i
172、n a transitional phase regarding mobile connectivity.While it has strong mobile broadband coverage,the affordability and availability of digital content and services present areas for improvement.The consumer readiness score indicates a population that is relatively prepared for and engaged with mob
173、ile services(GSMA,2023).iii.Structure of the education system During a difficult period in Cambodias history under the Khmer Rouge in the 1970s,several events led to the complete dismantling of its education system,with educational infrastructure repurposed or destroyed and educators targeted for ex
174、ecution,with a staggering 75 per cent loss of the teaching force(Ayres,2000;Heng&Sol,2023).Cambodias education system has since experienced notable improvements driven by extensive efforts from the government and stakeholders in the last 5 to 10 years(Heng&Sol,2023).Gross school enrolment at the pri
175、mary level in Cambodia was 110 per cent in 2022,according to the World Bank collection of development indicators(World Bank,2023a).2 iv.Prevalence of EdTech In recent years,Cambodia has taken significant strides in integrating technology into its education system.Cambodia has recognized the transfor
176、mative potential of technology education,particularly in the wake of global advancements in the digital landscape.This 2 The total enrolment in primary education,relative to the age-specific population,surpassed 100 per cent owing to under-age and over-age students.Over the two decades before COVID-
177、19 struck in 2020,Cambodia blossomed economically.Having reached lower middle-income status in 2015,it set its sights on attaining upper middle-income status by 2030.Thanks to garment exports and tourism,Cambodias economy grew at an average annual rate of 7.7 per cent between 1998 and 2019,making it
178、 one of the fastest-growing economies in the world.30TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICrecognition gained particular prominence during the COVID-19 pandemic(UNESCO,2020c).Nonetheless,Cambodias education system faced substantial challenges during the pandemic,particularly concerni
179、ng the adoption of digital technologies(UNESCO,2020b).A survey conducted across Cambodia at the start of the pandemic,involving 67 districts in 15 provinces of the country,found that key constraints on implementing successful distance learning programmes included unequal access to ICT infrastructure
180、 at home(53 per cent),insufficient internet(47 per cent),and skill limitations of caregivers in using ICT(33 per cent)(UNICEF Cambodia et al.,2021).Notably,76 per cent of respondents had access to smartphones,but only 32 per cent reported having access to the internet.There were large disparities in
181、 access levels,with education administrators having the highest access to smartphones(93 per cent)while students and caregivers had the lowest levels(69 per cent).As schools closed to curb the spread of the COVID-19,the country transitioned to distance learning.This shift had multifaceted consequenc
182、es(Bhatta et al.,2022).First,it had an immediate negative impact on student learning and well-being,particularly among children.Second,teachers and school personnel encountered significant hurdles in adapting and using ICT skills for effective distance teaching.Third,the delivery of continuous learn
183、ing programmes faced difficulties,resulting in suboptimal learning outcomes and a noticeable decline in education quality.Lastly,the pandemic severely disrupted the implementation of Cambodias Education Strategic Plan 20192023(Sothy,2021).v.Government initiatives To address these challenges,multiple
184、 stakeholders in Cambodia,including the Ministry of Education,Youth and Sport(MoEYS),UNESCO and non-governmental organizations(NGOs),collaborated to develop online video lessons focused on mathematics and Khmer literacy for early-grade students,and to promote digital adult literacy programmes.They a
185、lso worked on upgrading technical and vocational education and training(TVET)initiatives through digital skills learning platforms(UNESCO,2020b).These interventions aim to support digital and distance learning during school closures and post-pandemic recovery,with a focus on gender equality and empo
186、werment.Despite these initiatives,challenges such as the digital divide and inequitable access to education persisted,especially in remote and vulnerable communities.The Capacity Development Partnership Fund(CDPF)Phase III(under UNICEF)has supported MoEYS and the Department of Information Technology
187、 to enhance the digital skills learning environment for educators and education staff through the development of a high-quality,integrated online platform for continuous professional development(CPD),which began operation at the end of 2023.The CDPF now supports a harmonized CPD online platform that
188、 is integrated with the countrys human resources management platform and hosts accredited and non-accredited courses for teachers,teacher educators,school administrators,education officials and other education staff across MoEYS(World Education,2023a;UNICEF,2024).UNICEF also supported the developmen
189、t of remedial materials,student online videos and resources.31Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu In addition,Cambodia is exploring several other innovative solutions,including the Khmer Digital Literacy Programme.Collaboratively crafted by MoEYS,Kampuchea Action for Prim
190、ary Education,and Meta,this initiative aims to elevate digital skills among Cambodian educators and students,equipping them for the demands of the digital age.It introduces the We Think Digital curriculum,which empowers teachers and students in New Generation Schools and fosters collaboration among
191、key stakeholders to amplify digital skills learning opportunities within these schools(Kampuchea Action to Promote Education,2023;Pradeep,2023).3 Regarding technology laws,policies,plans and regulations,Cambodia has issued key polices such as the 2022 EduTech Roadmap and the 2018 Policy and Strategy
192、 on ICT in Education that emphasize the integration of ICT within the education system(UNESCO,2023i).Furthermore,MoEYS is now developing a digital education strategy for schools,supported by UNICEF and other partners(Ministry of Education,Youth and Sport,Cambodia,2019;UNICEF Cambodia,2021b).These in
193、itiatives aim to provide students with essential digital skills and promote innovation and creativity among graduates(UNESCO,2023i).The infrastructure for technology in schools is also a priority.Approximately 11 per cent of schools have an ICT teacher(with specific responsibilities),and 94 per cent
194、 of primary schools have electricity,but only 29 per cent are connected to the internet(Bhatta et al.,2022).The government has set goals to ensure schools can access electricity,computers and internet connectivity.New Generation Schools,particularly,are encouraged to become smart classrooms equipped
195、 with technological resources.Additionally,Cambodia is working to develop e-learning and open and distance learning programmes to provide alternative channels for education delivery,particularly in response to the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic(UNESCO,2023i).The development of technology
196、competencies among both learners and teachers is a focal point of Cambodias education system.The curriculum emphasizes digital literacy skills for students,while teachers are expected to incorporate ICT into their teaching methods.The government is also working to strengthen science,technology,engin
197、eering and mathematics(STEM)education and encourage female students to pursue STEM subjects(Chhoeurm,2020;UNICEF EAPRO,2023b).In terms of governance,MoEYS plays a central role in leading ICT services in education.Coordination mechanisms involve various ministries,including the Ministry of Post and T
198、elecommunications and the Ministry of Economy and Finance,to ensure infrastructure and connectivity support for educational institutions(Ministry of Post and Telecommunications,Cambodia,2022).vi.Other education system challenges However,despite all these efforts,Cambodia still faces several intricat
199、e challenges that must be addressed.One of the primary concerns is the need for more adequately trained 3 New Generation Schools in Cambodia,established by MoEYS,are innovative educational reforms focused on creating autonomous public schools.These schools,launched in 2015,aim to improve educational
200、 quality and relevance,with a particular emphasis on developing cognitive competencies in areas like STEM,ICT and critical thinking,preparing students for the 21st century workforce(Donaher&Wu,2020).32TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICteachers,which raises questions about the qua
201、lity of ICT education in the country.Additionally,limited access to electricity,deficient ICT infrastructure,and constrained internet availability for students further hinder the development of educators and students ICT skills(Lai,2019).Technical support and access to resources also still need to b
202、e improved.Despite government initiatives to promote ICT in education,including plans for digital transformation(Heng,2019),a digital divide between urban and rural areas remains.It is reported that,as of 2023,25.3 per cent of the population in Cambodia is urban and 74.7 per cent is rural(DataReport
203、al,2023).This urban/rural divide affects internet access,as the lack of infrastructure in many rural areas is a significant barrier.While urban areas have better internet connectivity,many rural areas do not have any access,making internet connection difficult even if it is affordable(DataReportal,2
204、023;Ministry of Education,Youth and Sport,Cambodia,2022).This suggests that rural schools still face considerable challenges in embracing ICT.Teacher competence also emerges as a critical factor affecting ICT integration,emphasizing that willingness and ability to apply knowledge and skills signific
205、antly influence efficacy.A 2022 study that examined Cambodian teachers readiness for using ICT in rural upper secondary schools found that all 109 teachers surveyed had a positive attitude towards using ICT in their teaching,yet over 40 per cent had never once used ICT in their teaching.This was des
206、pite 75 per cent of the teachers having received ICT training when they were at teacher-training college(Pang et al.,2022).These findings underscore the urgent need for comprehensive teacher training and clear ICT policies to enhance teachers digital readiness,especially post-COVID-19,both of which
207、are addressed in the new Teacher Policy Action Plan(20242030)(NEP,2023).Research into the digital skills and attitudes of teachers in Cambodia over the last 10 years(Hun Ravy,2019)suggests that Cambodian teachers generally exhibit a positive disposition towards integrating ICT into education,with a
208、particular eagerness to receive ICT training.However,their overall ICT competence is moderate,although they demonstrate a higher level of pedagogical ICT competence than overall ICT competence(Ravy,2019).The relationship between their attitudes and their competence underscores the importance of impr
209、oving digital skills to foster positive attitudes and effective ICT integration.The literature highlights ongoing efforts to enhance teachers digital competencies,emphasizing the need for comprehensive training and support from educational authorities to bridge the competence gap and facilitate ICT
210、integration in Cambodian education subjects(Ministry of Education,Youth and Sport,Cambodia,2018;Ravy,2019;UNICEF EAPRO,2023b).Pang,Nhor and Ems(2022)study delves into Cambodian teachers ICT readiness,particularly in light of the COVID-19 pandemic.It aligns with prior research,affirming that Cambodia
211、n teachers,regardless of their urban or rural setting,maintain a positive attitude towards ICT integration in their teaching.This positive stance reflects their eagerness to use technology to enhance student learning,laying a promising foundation for potential ICT integration.However,new challenges
212、in the post-COVID-19 era have arisen(Pang et al.,2022;UNESCO,2020b).While many teachers have received 33Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu ICT training,it predominantly covers basic computer skills,indicating a gap in the comprehensive ICT knowledge and skills necessary
213、for effective integration(Pang et al.,2022).Cambodias education system is actively embracing technology to equip its students and educators with essential digital skills aligning with the nations ambitious Pentagonal Strategy(2023).This national development plan significantly emphasizes digitalizing
214、 government services,with a special focus on the education sector(Royal Government of Cambodia,2023).By embracing this digital shift,Cambodia aims to empower its students and educators with vital digital competencies.However,there are still areas that need support in order for them to reach their fu
215、ll potential.These include improving infrastructure,teacher training,curriculum development,and digital literacy initiatives.As Cambodias education system incorporates digital technologies,it will be crucial that robust online protection frameworks for safeguarding students and educators are introdu
216、ced.The Cambodian Child Online Protection Guidelines for the Digital Technology Industry,spearheaded by the Royal Government of Cambodia through the Ministry of Post and Telecommunications,and supported by the Global Partnership to End Violence against Children and UNICEF Cambodia,offer comprehensiv
217、e directives for the digital technology industry to prevent and respond to online child exploitation and other forms of digital violence against children.These guidelines,developed in alignment with the National Action Plan to Prevent and Respond to Online Child Sexual Exploitation 20212025,emphasiz
218、e the imperative of creating a safe digital environment in educational settings.Incorporating these guidelines into curriculum development,teacher training and digital literacy initiatives is essential for ensuring a secure and supportive learning atmosphere in the digital age(Ministry of Post and T
219、elecommunications,Cambodia&UNICEF Cambodia,2023).Chinai.Socio-economic context China is home to over 1.4 billion people(ONeill,2023).Its landscape is diverse,and it has a thriving and robust economy that ranks among the worlds biggest and most diversified(World Bank,2023b).China is a one-party socia
220、list republic led by the Communist Party of China(Britannica,n.d.).Chinas economy has been growing consistently since 2009 and is now classed as an upper-middle-income country(World Bank,2023b;Yang et al.,2018).China has experienced a significant surge in urbanization over the past few decades.In 19
221、78,the urban population in China was 170 million,and the urbanization rate was 34TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC17.9 per cent.By 2020,the urban population had increased to 902 million,indicating that,in 2020,63.9 per cent of Chinas total population resided in urban areas(Han e
222、t al.,2023).Chinas economic transformation,incorporating elements of capitalist principles,has positioned it as one of the worlds fastest-growing economies and a top exporter(BBC Monitoring,2023b).The government places significant focus on digitalization and education for national development,leadin
223、g to ambitious policies and investments in these areas(Roberts et al.,2021).ii.Digital infrastructure Statista reports that China has one of the largest and fastest-growing telecommunications markets globally(Statista,2023b).The country has achieved widespread coverage of mobile networks,with a high
224、 penetration rate of mobile phone usage.Additionally,China has made significant progress in developing broadband internet services,enabling connectivity and digitalization across various sectors(Zhang,2021).The GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index ranks China at 80.7,in the Leaders cluster,indicating that
225、 China is excelling in all mobile connectivity and usage(GSMA,2023).iii.Structure of the education system Notably,China has high literacy rates,with a literacy rate for adults(people aged 15 years and above)of 97 per cent in 2020(UNESCO Institute for Statistics,n.d.).Education in the country is divi
226、ded into three categories:basic education,higher education and adult education(OECD,2018b).By law,each child must have nine years of compulsory education:six years of primary school,and three years of junior secondary education(Kan,2019).Chinas education system is extensive and well structured,cover
227、ing various stages from preschool to higher education and offering diverse pathways,including technical and vocational education and training(TVET)and non-formal education programmes(Kan,2019).There is coordination between the Ministry of Education and technology-related ministries,with digital skil
228、ls progressively integrated into the curriculum(Jiang et al.,2022),as seen in the development of initiatives such as Smart Education of China(Ma&Cortes,2023).iv.Prevalence of EdTech China is at the forefront of the global digital education transformation and has a well-established and robust educati
229、on system that surpasses its regional counterparts.Since the 1990s,a series of national initiatives and education ICT policies have been implemented to lay a solid foundation for digital education(Hu&Zhang,2020).Chinas education policy has focused on improving teachers digital literacy,promoting the
230、 application of information technology in education,and providing comprehensive guidelines for teachers digital skills enhancement(Yang et al.,2023).v.Government initiatives Through the Ministry of Education,Chinas government has taken substantial steps to advance digital skills development among te
231、achers and to integrate ICT skills in education provision,through initiatives such as Education Informatization 2.0(Yan&Yang,2021)and the Teacher Education Revitalization Action Plan(20182022)(Ministry of Education of the Peoples Republic of China,2018).UNESCO(2023f)notes that the Education Informat
232、ization 2.0 action plan:35Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu The Teacher Education Revitalization Action Plan focuses on improving rural teachers capacity,and establishing teacher education bases.It emphasizes targeted poverty alleviation in education,particularly in rem
233、ote and impoverished areas,and addressing digital disparities(Ministry of Education of the Peoples Republic of China,2018).Furthermore,the National Medium-and Long-term Education Reform and Development Plan(20102020)also highlights the significance of digital skills development among teachers.This p
234、lan,released by the Ministry of Education in 2010,provides a comprehensive framework for the development of education in China(Ministry of Education of the Peoples Republic of China,2010).It emphasizes the need to improve the quality of education through the integration of ICT and the enhancement of
235、 teachers digital skills.To assess the progress made in implementing these policies,the Ministry of Education released a progress report in 2020.This report provides an overview of the achievements and challenges faced in advancing digital skills development among teachers and integrating ICT skills
236、 in education.It highlights the efforts made by the government to provide training programmes,resources and support for teachers to enhance their digital skills(Gu&Li,2022).This emphasis on teachers professional digital competence reflects a forward-looking approach to education in the digital age(Y
237、an&Yang,2021).Internet access and digital devices are common in schools;for instance,virtual reality(VR)tools and digital pens are used to supplement traditional methods of teaching and make learning more interactive(Peng,2020).China is incorporating advanced technologies such as artificial intellig
238、ence(AI),VR,robotics,the Internet of Things(IoT),machine and deep learning,and face and voice recognition in education(Feijo et al.,2021;UNESCO,2021b).The government provides teacher training and opportunities to build digital skills,such as workshops,seminars and hands-on training(Yang et al.,2023)
239、.China is a leader in EdTech(educational technology)innovation,with wide adoption of e-learning platforms,interactive whiteboards,and AI-powered educational solutions such as smart classroom management,educational chatbots and language-learning apps(Feng,2023).The Chinese government has launched var
240、ious initiatives to promote EdTech(Zeng,2022),including policies promoting technology integration in education(Yan&Yang,2021),national IT strategies for education(Liu-Schuppener,2023),and significant investment in digital infrastructure.For instance,the Smart Education of China initiative is a netwo
241、rk of three integrated online education platforms for higher education,K12 education and vocational education centralizing Chinas online course offerings(Wang,2023).The initiative uses technology to narrow educational gaps across China.Chinas aimed to ensure that by 2022,teaching applications were p
242、rovided to all teachers,learning applications covered all school-age students,and digital campus constructions covered all schools(primary,secondary and high).The IT application level and the level of information literacy of teachers and students were to be improved,and a large-scale platform of Int
243、ernet+Education was to be built.36TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICMinister of Education,Huai Jinpeng,stated that it represents“a notable milestone in the nations education digitalization strategy”(Ma&Cortes,2023).Gender equality in education is a priority in China.The Chinese g
244、overnment has implemented policies to promote gender equality in education,including the elimination of gender disparities in enrolment rates and the provision of equal educational opportunities for boys and girls(Li and Yang,2022).There is also a strong focus on teacher professional development to
245、enhance digital skills and teaching methods.The Chinese government has implemented various initiatives to improve teacher training,including teacher-training centres and professional development programmes(Lei and Medwell,2021).The Ministry of Education co-ordinates with technology-related ministrie
246、s,and digital skills are progressively integrated into the curriculum(Luo et al.,2021;Ministry of Education of the Peoples Republic of China,2017).For instance,the Ministry of Education released the Key Areas of Work of the Ministry of Education in 2022,which proposes to“implement a strategic initia
247、tive on education digitalization”(Ministry of Education of the Peoples Republic of China,2022b;UNESCO,2023f).As the first nation to encounter the COVID-19 pandemic,China demonstrated responsiveness and agility in adapting to the challenges of the pandemic for the education system.Shortly after the o
248、utbreak,the Chinese government introduced the Classes Suspended but Learning Continues emergency plan(Ministry of Education of the Peoples Republic of China,2020).This initiative mandated the closure of all schools and the shift to entirely online teaching and learning activities.As Gu and Li(2022)w
249、rite:Schools across the country,including K12 institutions,colleges,and universities,pushed back their spring semester start dates and switched to teaching classes online.To support the implementation of the emergency plan,the central government,local authorities,educational institutions,and enterpr
250、ises made collective efforts to address the most salient needs;including enriching the provision of online learning resources,strengthening the supply of technological infrastructure,addressing digital inequalities,and training teachers for new modes of instruction.During the early stages of the pan
251、demic,teachers encountered a significant challenge:adapting their teaching methodology from offline to online.This shift required a transformation in the role of the teacher,evolving from content provider to facilitator and content curator as more than 200 million students(primary and secondary)star
252、ted the new semester through online platforms(Feijo et al.,2021).The Smart Education of China platform,rolled out in 2020,is considered the cornerstone of the countrys digital transformation in education.It is one of the largest collections of digital skills learning resources and has provided train
253、ing to more than 10 million teachers across the country,contributing to the narrowing of the digital divide in China(Zhou et al.,2023).37Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu China initially focused on facilitating extensive online education.Once the COVID-19 situation bega
254、n to improve,the emphasis shifted towards reinstating traditional classes.This shift was driven by challenges such as parents work obligations,limited home resources,and the complexity of overseeing education entirely online,making comprehensive online education less preferable(Feijo et al.,2021).Li
255、(2022)writes that from 2020,the pace of progress in Chinas digital skills education advanced rapidly as the shift towards online learning prompted educational institutions to adopt digital technologies and platforms to ensure continuity in education.Online learning platforms such as DingTalk and Ten
256、cent Classroom became widely used across the country(Li,2022).However,while China is a leader in EdTech adoption,there are challenges such as patchy implementation,a lack of standards,and concerns about data privacy(Feijo et al.,2021).Chinas robust digital infrastructure,comprehensive education syst
257、em and widespread use of EdTech tools demonstrate elements of preparedness for digital education activities(Xiao&Zhang,2022).The countrys emphasis on teacher training(Lei&Medwell,2021),educational innovation and gender equality in education positions it as a leader in educational technology adoption
258、.Yao et al.(2023)report that the Chinese government has actively promoted educational innovation through policies and initiatives such as the Internet Plus Education action plan,which aims to integrate technology into education and foster the development of innovative teaching methods.Lao PDRi.Socio
259、-economic context Lao PDR is a landlocked country in the heart of Southeast Asia with a population of 7.1 million people(World Bank,n.d.-c).It is currently classified as a least developed country(LDC)but is on track to graduate from LDC status in 2026.In the last decade,Lao PDR has made considerable
260、 gains in national development(UNCTAD,2019).Driven by strong economic growth and rapidly improving healthcare and education,Lao PDR has improved life expectancy and reduced poverty;GDP per capita increased from about US$581 in 2006 to US$2,054 in 2022(World Bank,n.d.-b).With 63 per cent of its popul
261、ation living in rural areas,agriculture plays a crucial role in Lao PDRs economy and accounts for 28 per cent of the countrys GDP(FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific,2023).The countrys political structure is based on one-party parliamentary socialism,and over the last 50 years it has experi
262、enced peace and political stability,making it an attractive country for foreign investment in the region(US Department of State,2022).38TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICii.Digital infrastructure The GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index ranks Lao PDR at 52.5,in the Transitioners cluste
263、r,which indicates that it is in a transitional phase regarding mobile connectivity and usage.While the country scored particularly low on affordability and availability of digital content and services,it scored 71.8 out of 100 on consumer readiness,suggesting the population is engaged and well prepa
264、red for mobile connectivity and associated services(GSMA,2023).An Asian Development Bank survey on financial literacy in Lao PDR further revealed that while over 80 per cent of respondents owned a phone,only 30 per cent of them had a smartphone(Morgan&Trinh,2019).The survey also highlighted a consid
265、erable digital divide between urban and rural areas,with one-fifth of rural respondents not using a phone,which is twice the number of urban residents(Pavanello,2021).Around 47.3 per cent of smartphone users were living in urban areas,suggesting that access to digital technology is still limited in
266、rural areas of the country(Morgan&Trinh,2019).iii.Structure of the education system The government of Lao PDR spends approximately 3.3 per cent of the countrys GDP on education,one of the lowest rates in the world,against the backdrop of other national priorities and a heavily indebted economy(Steve
267、nton,2023).Lao PDRs education system grapples with significant challenges,including low enrolment rates in rural areas;high dropout rates,especially at lower levels;gender-based enrolment disparity;teachers limited skills in child-centred pedagogies and access to teacher-learning materials;and an in
268、adequate education budget.Concerningly,many children face a language barrier as they may not be literate in Lao,the official language of instruction(Steventon,2023;UNICEF Lao PDR,2023a).Approximately 61 per cent of Lao children aged 35 years were enrolled in early childhood education programmes in 2
269、0222023;however,those in hard-to-reach areas and from low-income families are most likely to be excluded(UNICEF Lao PDR,2023a).This limited access to quality early childhood education strongly influences the high repetition and dropout rates at the primary level(UNICEF Lao PDR,2023a).While 81.9 per
270、cent of children complete their primary education,only 15 per cent go on to pursue lower secondary education,and just 3 per cent progress to upper secondary levels.These low rates are attributed to poor road access,financial constraints on low-income families,and a shortage of teachers.Furthermore,g
271、ender-based disparities persist,with fewer girls enrolled due to traditional expectations that prioritize household responsibilities over female education(Steventon,2023).Due in part to the governments spending on education being lower than the benchmark of 18 per cent set by Article 60 of the Educa
272、tion Law,(2015)which governs educational activities in the country,(UNICEF,n.d.),learning poverty remains rife in the country:39Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu Through the Ministry of Education and Sports(MoES)Sector Development Plan 202125,the government has committe
273、d to refocusing on primary education to enhance teachers content knowledge and pedagogical skills,expanding access to lower secondary education to make it more affordable and effective,and realigning the skills of MoES staff(GPE,n.d.).iv.Prevalence of EdTech In addition to challenges in its educatio
274、n system,Lao PDR contends with considerable difficulties in digital education stemming from limited internet accessibility and affordability.The World Bank notes the countrys significant lag in digital adoption compared with its regional counterparts in terms of accessibility,quality and affordabili
275、ty of internet services.Access to mobile broadband is increasing,but rural and remote communities are still underserved(Demas et al.,2018).Before the onset of COVID-19,digitalization and digital skills had a limited presence in the Lao education system at all levels.According to a recent UNESCO surv
276、ey on the ICT readiness of Lao PDRs education system,78 per cent of teachers had not undergone any ICT training.While teachers acknowledged the significant role of ICT in education,the majority had not been motivated or encouraged to integrate ICT into their classrooms(World Bank,2022a).v.Government
277、 initiatives In response to long-standing school closures,the MoES launched the countrys first digital education platform,Khang Panya Lao,which means wisdom warehouse.The platform offers digital skills learning content,including the official curriculum from pre-primary to the completion of upper sec
278、ondary school,and other resources.The platform enabled the government to minimize pandemic-related school disruptions for over 90,000 pre-primary and primary students(Ministry of Education and Sports,Lao PDR,2021;World Bank,2022a).The Lao Digital Economy Strategy 20212030 seeks to promote ICT infras
279、tructure development to facilitate digital transformation(World Bank,2022a).While the Lao government is taking action to expand access to excellent education and address gender disparities,present cultural norms,a top-down approach to education governance,and limited resources remain significant imp
280、ediments to reaching SDGs 4 and 5 by 2030(Haefner,2020).The Gross Enrolment Ratio for pre-primary education in 20222023 stood at 61.3 per cent for children aged 35 years and 81.9 per cent for those aged 5.Enrolment in primary school was high at 97.7 per cent,but only 67.3 per cent transition to lowe
281、r secondary and 36.2 per cent to upper secondary education.The primary school completion rate was 93.1 per cent,while the completion rates for lower and upper secondary were 87.9 per cent and 86.8 per cent,respectively.All of these indicators showed a downward trend compared to previous years,reflec
282、ting the long-term effects of COVID-19 and socio-economic challenges.(UNICEF Lao PDR,2023b).40TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFIC While there is no finalized ICT or digital education master plan for the country,as reported by UNDP(2022a),a number of initiatives are bringing togeth
283、er internet service providers and partners in the private sector to enhance access to digital infrastructure to support digital skills learning(UNICEF Lao PDR,2022).Analysis of recent initiatives underlines Lao PDRs commitment to integrating digital curriculum into learning(UNICEF Lao PDR,2023a).The
284、 country has established ICT competency standards for teachers to align the ICT competency expected in teachers with the national policy and vision(UNESCO,2022f).The integration of digital skills learning in the curriculum is reflected in the competency frameworks metrics for assessment,which includ
285、e elements such as the application of digital skills(UNESCO,2022f).Implementing competency-based ICT course syllabuses is one mechanism to ensure pre-service teacher programmes in primary and secondary education incorporate digital skills learning in the curriculum(UNESCO,2022f).In addition,UNICEF i
286、s supporting the formulation of an ICT strategy,while the MoES has established a dedicated ICT core team tasked with overseeing the implementation of digital innovation within the sector(Australian Council for Educational Research,2023).In an effort to improve the education system in Lao PDR,and in
287、particular to bridge the gender gap and enhance online protection for girls,the MoES launched a series of digital literacy camps aimed at providing students with the necessary skills and knowledge to thrive in a rapidly changing digital world(UNICEF Lao PDR,2023c).During the camp,students are introd
288、uced to a range of important topics,such as online safety,and given hands-on experience with tablets and Khang Panya Lao(UNICEF Lao PDR,2023c).In addition to teaching technical skills,the camp also provides a space for students to share their most pressing learning needs and priorities.This is parti
289、cularly important for girls,who often face additional barriers to accessing education and technology.Despite the progress made towards enhancing girls education and achieving gender parity in Lao PDR,there are still significant gender inequalities that persist(UNICEF Lao PDR,2017).These inequalities
290、 are deeply ingrained in the society and result in unequal opportunities for girls and boys,even in areas where the government has made efforts to improve the situation.According to the UNICEF Gender Equality report,girls in some areas of Lao PDR face the risk of being married off as children(UNICEF
291、 Lao PDR,2017).This practice puts them at risk of early pregnancies,which can lead to health complications and other challenges that limit their opportunities in life.UNICEF EAPRO has taken various measures to promote educational development in Lao PDR and other surrounding countries.EAPROs initiati
292、ves aim to improve access,quality and equity in education.Prior to the COVID-19 pandemic,EAPRO undertook a range of educational projects and programmes to address the unique challenges and opportunities present in the East Asia and Pacific region.These projects and programmes include teacher trainin
293、g,curriculum development,and the introduction of new technologies to classrooms(UNICEF EAPRO,2019a).41Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu Solomon Islandsi.Socio-economic context Solomon Islands is a Pacific Island nation with a diverse population of approximately 721,455(
294、Solomon Islands Government,2020).The economy of Solomon Islands is predominantly supported by agriculture,fishing and forestry/industrial logging(Rohoia&Sharma,2021),with a high reliance on subsistence farming.The country faces several socio-economic challenges,including income inequality,high youth
295、 unemployment,and limited access to healthcare and education.Solomon Islands is listed as an LDC,indicating economic vulnerability and substantial development challenges(United Nations,2021).As of 2020,the GDP per capita was approximately US$2,000.Solomon Islands is returning to growth driven by hos
296、ting the Pacific Games in November and December 2023,and several large infrastructure projects in the energy and transport sectors(World Bank,2022b).ii.Digital infrastructure While Solomon Islands is working to improve digital infrastructure,there are variations in internet availability,cost and typ
297、e of connectivity across urban and rural areas in the country.According to the International Monetary Fund(2022),mobile and internet penetration rates in Solomon Islands are still below the regional average,indicating the need for additional infrastructure investments to enhance growth potential.Acc
298、ess to the internet is limited,particularly in remote provinces,and there are challenges related to electricity supply.Hobbis and Hobbis discuss the concept of the Bush Internet in Solomon Islands,which entails a flourishing offline circulation of multimedia files to facilitate reciprocal exchange n
299、etworks,indicating a form of digital device accessibility in the region(S.K.Hobbis&G.Hobbis,2022).The GSMA Mobile Connectivity Index ranks Solomon Islands at 38.9,in the Emerging cluster,which indicates that Solomon Islands is in the early stage of establishing mobile connectivity.While there are st
300、rengths in consumer readiness and mobile connectivity coverage,challenges exist in infrastructure,affordability,and the availability of digital content and services(GSMA,2023).iii.Structure of the education system Solomon Islands education system consists of early childhood,primary,secondary and ter
301、tiary levels.It spans various pathways,including traditional/academic education,technical and vocational education and training(TVET)and non-formal education(Porakari et al.,2015).The curriculum is influenced by both Western and traditional knowledge,reflecting the nations cultural diversity.Challen
302、ges include limited access to quality education in rural areas,teacher shortages,and disparities in educational outcomes.Completion rates vary at each stage,and gender disparities exist,with girls having lower completion rates than boys(Asian Development Bank,2015).According to a UNDP report,complet
303、ion of secondary school and further education remains 42TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICskewed in favour of male students:47 per cent of 18-year-old males are enrolled in education compared with only 37 per cent of 18-year-old females(UNDP,2018).The UNDP(2018)notes:Access to ed
304、ucation is relatively low in rural areas The concentration of the National Secondary Schools in Honiara has had several effects.First,it means that the chances of rural people accessing education is lower,due to increased costs and travel needed to go to school Other students may leave their provinc
305、es to go to Honiara and stay with extended family,which puts financial pressure on households and can lead to disillusionment if education is not completed or does not lead to work The lack of resources at Provincial Secondary Schools also puts rural students at a disadvantage in terms of applying f
306、or tertiary education,scholarships and other opportunities The lack of internet access in rural areas remains a problem several years later.(pp.1415)iv.Prevalence of EdTech The Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development(MEHRD)manages education in Solomon Islands in collaboration with chur
307、ch education authorities and provincial government education authorities(Sanga et al.,2020).The integration of digital skills into the curriculum at each level is supported by the ICT and EdTech departments within MEHRD,in coordination with the Ministry of Communication and Aviation.This integration
308、 is crucial for preparing students for the digital age and for improving the quality of education in Solomon Islands.v.Government initiatives Several government initiatives are supporting the move towards ICT in education.UNESCO(2023d)notes that the National ICT Policy 20152019 outlines the governme
309、nts commitment to promoting the use of ICT in various sectors,including education.The policy emphasizes the importance of integrating ICT into the education system to improve teaching and learning processes,as well as to enhance the overall quality of education in the country.The ICT in Education Ma
310、ster Plan 20192023 takes steps towards operationalizing the ICT policy(Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development,Solomon Islands,2019).In addition,iResource,a digital skills learning platform developed by the ICT Information Services Department and MEHRD,is a tangible output of the plann
311、ing and strategic work towards fortifying EdTech in Solomon Islands,and is discussed later in this report(Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development,Solomon Islands,n.d.).The curriculum in Solomon Islands is being developed to integrate digital skills at each level,emphasizing the importa
312、nce of preparing students for the digital age and enhancing their employability.However,the limited internet infrastructure has hindered the effective implementation of digital education initiatives(ITU,2019),thereby affecting the quality of and access to education and the development of digital ski
313、lls among students.Policies and initiatives are also being formulated to integrate technology into 43Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu education,improve digital infrastructure,and provide training for teachers.One of them is ICT for Better Education(ICT4BE),a project dr
314、iven by MEHRD in conjunction with the Information and Communication Technology Support Unit(ICTSU)and the Asian Development Bank.UNESCO(2023d)notes:The ICT for Better Education project seeks to drive the use of ICT to support management.administration,teaching,and learning throughout the education s
315、ector.With the aim of promoting a student-centred teaching and learning environment,a number of schools in Solomon Islands were equipped with tablet computers and digital skills learning materials to promote information literacy and drive student learning outcomes.The focus is on creating a foundati
316、on for digital education to benefit students across the country.The availability of EdTech in Solomon Islands is particularly lacking in remote areas,and this urban/rural digital divide poses a significant barrier to the widespread use of EdTech.The emergency remote education experience during the C
317、OVID 19 pandemic highlighted challenges in digital transformation for higher education institutions,including outdated technological devices and compatibility gaps in certain disciplines(Oliveira et al.,2021).The pandemic further highlighted the importance of teachers digital skills readiness,as it
318、encompasses a large variety of knowledge and skills regarding digital technologies and their application in teaching practice(Perifanou et al.,2021).Through online professional development programmes and virtual teaching resources,educators in Solomon Islands can enhance their skills and knowledge,u
319、ltimately improving the quality of education imparted to students.The ICT in Education Master Plan 20192023 is a five-year plan to improve the access to and quality of ICT for teaching,learning,administration and management of the education system(Ministry of Education and Human Resources Developmen
320、t,Solomon Islands,2019;UNESCO,2023d).UNESCO(2023d)notes that the plan“covers four major pillars of ICT integration into education,namely 1)ICT infrastructure(iKonect),2)human resource development(iTeach),3)digital content development(iResource),and 4)education management information system enhanceme
321、nt(iManage).”The plan aims to facilitate equitable access to learning by enhancing ICT infrastructure and connectivity,leveraging quality digital resources and pedagogy,and improving the effectiveness and efficiency of education management resources.In response to the COVID-19 school closures,MEHRD
322、implemented the Learning Continuity Program(LCP)to provide guidelines for schools,teachers,parents and guardians on the process and resources required to deliver online learning and home-schooling modalities for students(Solomon Islands Government,2022).As part of the LCP,MEHRD digitized learning re
323、sources for early childhood education through to junior secondary levels in a web platform called iResource,which the government created to 44TEACHERS DIGITAL LITERACY IN THE EAST ASIA AND PACIFICprovide schools with curriculum-aligned and locally produced digital resources(Ministry of Education and
324、 Human Resources Development,Solomon Islands,n.d.).For students with limited to no internet connectivity at home,MEHRD distributed physical copies of the learning resources to students in primary,junior secondary and senior secondary levels via education authorities.In addition,the National Educatio
325、n Action Plan 20162020(Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development,Solomon Islands,2016b)provides further evidence of the governments efforts to enhance digital literacy among teachers.This plan includes specific objectives and strategies aimed at integrating ICT into the education system,
326、including the provision of ICT training for teachers and the development of ICT infrastructure in schools.UNDP has also developed strategies for Solomon Islands to use technology to address issues of remoteness and to monitor and support the work of provincial governments(UNDP,2022b).These efforts a
327、im to bridge the digital divide and improve educational quality(Lucas&Vicente,2022).Moreover,the localized efforts to enhance digital literacy among teachers in Solomon Islands can also be informed by regional frameworks and initiatives.For example,the Pacific Regional Framework Implementation Rolli
328、ng Plan emphasizes the importance of building the capacity of teachers to effectively integrate ICT into their teaching practices(Pacific Community,2021).This regional framework provides a strategic direction for leveraging ICT to improve educational outcomes in the Pacific region,including Solomon
329、Islands.Solomon Islands journey towards digital education is characterized by efforts to overcome challenges and foster sustainable development.While facing unique obstacles,the nation is making progress in improving digital infrastructure and integrating technology into education.The governments in
330、itiatives reflect a commitment to providing equal opportunities and preparing the younger generation for the digital age in a geographically dispersed context.MEHRD,with technical support from UNICEF,is reviewing its current education ICT master plan for another five years,which will establish a cle
331、ar pathway for improving digital skills learning and capacities in collaboration with various development partners and government institutions(UNESCO,2023d).Vanuatui.Socio-economic context Vanuatu,a Pacific Island nation,is home to around 300,000 people with unique cultural backgrounds(Pascht,2022;W
332、orld Bank,n.d.-e).The countrys geography and environment play a significant role in shaping its socio-economic dynamics.Vanuatus major sectors and industries include agriculture,tourism and fisheries,with a focus 45Spotlight on Cambodia,China,Lao PDR,Solomon Islands and Vanuatu on marine conservatio
333、n(Pascht,2022),and its economy is also influenced by trade agreements,which affect its food environment and national policies(Ravuvu et al.,2021).Vanuatu has been independent since 1980,and is governed by a constitutional democracy.The nation has made strides in economic development,with a focus on sustainable practices and community resilience(Asian Development Bank,2022a).The GSMA Mobile Connect
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